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USGS1998

National water-quality assessment of the Lake Erie-Lake St. Clair Basin, Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York — Environmental and hydrologic setting

The Lake Erie-Lake St. Clair Basin covers approximately 22,300 mi 2 (square miles) in parts of Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. Situated in two major physiographic provinces, the Appalachian Plateaus and the Central Lowland, the basin includes varied topographic and geomorphic features that affect the hydrology. As of 1990, the basin was inhabited by approximately 10.4 million people. Lake effect has a large influence on the temperature and precipitation of the basin, especially along the leeward southeast shore of Lake Erie. Mean annual precipitation generally increases from west to east, ranging from 31.8 inches at Detroit, Mich., to 43.8 inches at Erie, Pa. The rocks that underlie the Lake Erie-Lake St. Clair Basin range in age from Cambrian through Pennsylvanian, but only Silurian through Pennsylvanian rocks are part of the shallow ground-water flow system. The position of the basin on the edge of the Michigan and Appalachian Basins is responsible for the large range in geologic time of the exposed rocks. Rock types range from shales, siltstones, and mudstones to coarse-grained sandstones and conglomerates. Carbonate rocks consisting of limestones, dolomites, and calcareous shales also underlie the basin. All the basin is overlain by Pleistocene deposits- till, fine-grained stratified sediments, and coarse-grained stratified sediments-most of Wisconsinan age. A system of buried river valleys filled with various lacustrine, alluvial, and coarse glacial deposits is present in the basin. The soils of the Lake Erie-Lake St. Clair Basin consist of two dominant soil orders: Alfisols and Inceptisols. Four other soil orders in the basin (Mollisols, Histisols, Entisols, and Spodosols) are of minor significance, making up less than 8 percent of the total area. The estimated water use for the Lake Erie-Lake St. Clair Basin for 1990 was 10,649 Mgal/d (million gallons per day). Power generation accounted for about 77 percent of total water withdrawals for the basin, whereas agriculture accounted for the least water-use withdrawals, at an estimated 38 Mgal/d. About 98 percent of the total water used in the basin was drawn from surface water; the remaining 2 percent was from ground water. Agricultural and urban land are the predominant land covers in the basin. Agriculture makes up approximately 74.7 percent of the total basin area; urban land use accounts for 11.2 percent; forested areas constitute 10.5 percent; and water, wetlands, rangeland, and barren land constitute less than 4.0 percent. The eight principal streams in the basin are the Clinton, Huron, and Raisin Rivers in Michigan, the Maumee, Sandusky, Cuyahoga, and Grand Rivers in Ohio, and Cattaraugus Creek in New York. The Maumee River, the largest stream in the basin, drains 6,609 mi 2 and discharges just under 24 percent of the streamflow from the basin into Lake Erie. Combined, the eight principal streams discharge approximately 54 percent of the surface water from the basin to the Lake Erie system per year. Average runoff increases from west to east in the basin. The glacial and recent deposits comprise the unconsolidated aquifers and confining units within the basin. Yields of wells completed in tills range from 0 to 20 gal/min (gallon per minute), but yields generally are near the lower part of this range. Fine-grained stratified deposits can be expected to yield from 0 to 3 gal/ min, and coarse-grained stratified deposits can yield 0.3 to 2,050 gal/min. Pennsylvanian sandstones can yield more than 25 gal/min, but they generally yield 10 to 25 gal/min. Mississippian sandstones in the basin generally yield 2 to 100 gal/min. The Mississippian and Devonian shales are considered to be confining units; in places, they produce small quantities of water from fractures at or near the bedrock surface. Wells completed in the Devonian and Silurian carbonates yield 25 to 500 gal/min, but higher yields have been reported in several zones.

Indiana, Michigan, New York , Ohio, Pennsylvania↗
USGS1999

Environmental setting and natural factors and human influences affecting water quality in the White River Basin, Indiana

The White River Basin drains 11,349 square miles of central and southern Indiana and is one of 59 Study Units selected for water-quality assessment as part of the U.S. Geological Survey's National WaterQuality Assessment Program. Defining the environmental setting of the basin and identifying the natural factors and human influences that affect water quality are important parts of the assessment. Interrelated natural factors help determine the quality of surface and ground water in a river basin. The White River Basin has a humid continental climate, characterized by well-defined winter and summer seasons. Geologic features in the basin include glaciated and nonglaciated areas; a region of karst geomorphology that is characterized by caves and sinkholes; and a thick, sedimentary bedrock sequence underlying the entire basin. Unconsolidated glacial deposits of clay, silt, sand and gravel cover more than 60 percent of the basin. Soils developed in unconsolidated glacial deposits are typically fertile, naturally or artificially well drained, and farmed. Soils in the unglaciated south-central part of the basin are thin, have low fertility, and are best suited for forest or pasture. Agriculture is the principal land use in the White River Basin. Approximately 70 percent of the basin is used for agriculture, and about 50 percent of the basin is cropland. Corn and soybeans are the major crops. Other significant land uses are forest (22 percent) and urban and residential (7 percent). The population of the basin was 2.1 million in 1990. Water use in the White River Basin totaled 1,284 million gallons per day in 1995, of which 84.5 percent was surface water and 15.5 percent was ground water. Despite the predominant use of surface water, ground water was the primary source of drinking water for approximately 56 percent of the population. The general water chemistry in the White River Basin is determined by natural factors such as soils and geologic materials that water contacts as it moves through the hydrologic system. In the southern part of the basin, bedrock upland areas are dominated by non-carbonate bedrock, thin soils, and high runoff-rainfall ratios. These areas have small chemical concentrations in streamwater. Conversely, in the northern part of the basin where glacial deposits are thick and in the southwestern part of the basin where loess deposits are thick, water has longer periods of time to react with soils and aquifers and to acquire substantial quantities of dissolved constituents. As a result, streams in the till plain and glacial lowland have higher concentrations of most constituents than streams in the unglaciated parts of the basin. Water quality is significantly modified by human influences. Water quality is affected locally by point sources of contamination that include combined-sewer overflows, power-generation-plant cooling stations, and wastewater-treatment-plant effluents that are generally associated with densely populated areas. Water quality is additionally affected by non-point sources of contamination related to agriculture, urban runoff, and mining. Six hydrogeomorphic regions of the White River Basin are delineated on the basis of distinct and relatively homogeneous natural characteristics. These six regions are used in the White River Basin study as a framework for examining the effects of natural factors on water quality in the basin. Bedrock is exposed or near the surface in three hydrogeomorphic regions the bedrock uplands, bedrock lowland and plain, and karst plain; streams and shallow aquifers in these regions are susceptible to contamination, especially in the karst plain, and show rapid response to rainfall. The other three hydrogeomorphic regions the fluvial deposits, till plain, and glacial lowland are in the glaciated part of the basin. Where thick fine-grained unconsolidated sediments are present, primarily in the till plain, ground-water supplies are protected from contamination, and extreme high and low streamflows are moderated.

Indiana↗
USGS1998

Trace elements in streambed sediment and fish liver at selected sites in the Upper Colorado River Basin, Colorado 1995-96

Trace elements were analyzed in streambed-sediment samples collected from 16 sites and in fish-liver samples collected from 14 sites in the Upper Colorado River Basin in Colorado as part of the National Water-Quality Assessment program. Sites sampled represented agricultural, mining, mixed, and urban/recreation land uses and background conditions. The results for 15 trace elements in streambed-sediment and in fish-liver samples are presented in this report. Fourteen of the selected trace elements were detected in streambed-sediment samples collected at all sites. Twelve of the selected trace elements were detected in fish liver at more than 50 percent of the sites. Cadmium, copper, selenium, and zinc were selected for a more detailed analysis. Cadmium, copper, and zinc concentrations in streambed sediment were highest at mining land-use sites in the Southern Rocky Mountains physiographic province. Selenium concentrations in streambed sediment were highest at an agricultural land-use site in the Colorado Plateau physiographic province. The concentration of trace elements in streambed sediment generally increased as particle size decreased. Concentrations of trace elements in fish liver generally did not follow the same relation to land use as concentrations in streambed sediment; however, cadmium concentrations in fish liver were highest at a mining land-use site in the Southern Rocky Mountains physiographic province, and selenium concentrations in fish liver were highest at an agricultural land-use site in the Colorado Plateau physiographic province. Copper and zinc concentrations in fish liver were highest at mixed land-use sites. Comparison of streambed-sediment and fish-liver concentrations to two other similar NAWQA studies in the Rocky Mountain region generally indicated similar patterns in relation to land use for streambed sediment, but not for fish liver. Cadmium, copper, and zinc concentrations in streambed sediment were highest at sites affected by mining in all three study units. Selenium concentrations in streambed sediment did not indicate relations among the three study units when compared to land use. Cadmium in fish liver was highest at sites affected by mining in all three study units. Copper, selenium, and zinc in fish liver did not indicate relations among the three study units when compared to land use.

Colorado↗
USGS1999

Nitrate, volatile organic compounds, and pesticides in ground water — A summary of selected studies from New Jersey and Long Island, New York

This report describes the ground-water systems in the unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers of the Coastal Plain of New Jersey and Long Island and in the fractured bedrock and valley-fill aquifers of northern New Jersey; summarizes current knowledge about the occurrence and distribution of nitrate, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and pesticides in these systems; and explains why some ground-water systems are more vulnerable to comtamination than others. Although the vulnerability of ground water to contamination from the land surface is influenced by many factors, the degree of aquifer confinement, the depth of the well, and the surrounding land use are key factors. Unconfined aquifers generally are much more vulnerable to contamination than confined aquifers. For a well in a confined aquifer, the farther the well is from the unconfined area, the less vulnerable it is to contamination. Generally, the deeper the well, the less vulnerable it is to contamination. Finally, because human activities greatly affect the quality of water that recharges an aquifer, the amount and type of land use in the area that contributes water to the well is a key factor in determining vulnerability. Nitrate contamination of ground water typically occurs in agricultural and residential areas, especially where the aquifer is very permeable and unconfined and nitrogen-fertilizer use is high. In New Jersey and on Long Island, concentrations of nitrate exceed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) more often than those of VOCs or pesticides. Nitrate contamination generally is associated with nonpoint sources. VOC contamination of ground water occurs primarily in urban areas, especially in mixed urban and industrial areas where chemicals are used. In general, VOC concentrations are low and do not exceed MCLs. High concentrations of VOCs generally are associated with point sources. Pesticide contamination of ground water occurs in some agricultural and residential areas, where the aquifer is very permeable and unconfined, and where the chemicals are used. Concentrations of pesticides in New Jersey and on Long Island generally are low; in agricultural areas of Long Island, however, some have been found to exceed MCLs. Pesticide contamination generally is associated with nonpoint sources.

New Jersey, New York↗
USGS1999

Hydrogeologic assessment of the Sequim-Dungeness area, Clallam County, Washington

The Sequim-Dungeness area covers 116 square miles (mi 2 ) on the northern part of the Olympic Peninsula in northwestern Washington. The central part of this area (74 mi 2 ) was designated as a primary study area. During the past two decades, the population has rapidly increased, land use has changed from mostly agricultural to residential, and salmon populations in the Dungeness River have appreciably declined. The increasing competition for water combined with a close relation between ground water, the Dungeness River, and an extensive irrigation system has created a need for a better understanding of ground water and the relation between ground water and surface water in the study area. The Sequim-Dungeness area is underlain by as much as 2,000 feet of unconsolidated Quaternary deposits that are mostly of glacial origin. Interpretation of 10 hydrogeologic cross sections and lithologic logs of about 600 wells led to the delineation of three aquifers, two confining beds, and a lower unit of undifferentiated deposits. A bedrock unit at the bottom is considered the base of the ground-water system. Ground water in the study area is recharged from infiltration and percolation of precipitaton, percolation of unconsumed irrigation water, leakage from irrigation ditches, subsurface inflow through the southern study-area boundary, and leakage from streams. Average annual recharge for the study period (December 1995 to September 1997) was estimated to be 17.7 inches (in.) ( 151 cubic feet per second (ft 3 /s)). The distribution of recharge was 8.6 in. (74 ft3fs) from precipitation, 2.7 in. (23 ft 3 /s) from subsurface inflow, 3.1 in. (26 ft 3 /s) from irrigation, and 3.3 in. (28 ft 3 /s) from leakage from the Dungeness River. The 8.6 in. of recharge from precipitation is much higher than would be expected in an average year because average annual precipitation during the study period was about 28 in., which is 1.35 times higher than long-term average annual precipitation. The long-term average annual recharge from precipitation was estimated to be 5.4 in. (48 ft 3 /s). Ground water discharges as subsurface flow to saltwater bodies, flow to streams, flow to springs, and as withdrawals from wells. Subsurface flow to saltwater bodies and flow to springs were not estimated in this study. Estimated average annual discharge was 3.2 inches (in.) (27 ft 3 /s)) to the Dungeness River and 4.6 in. (39 ft 3 /s) to other streams in the study area. Gross withdrawals from wells in 1996 were estimated to be 1.0 in. (8.4 ft 3 /s). There was a small but statistically significant increase in nitrate concentrations in ground water from 1980 to 1996. Median concentrations in the primary study area were 0.37 milligrams per liter (mg/L) in 1980 and 0.46 mg/L in 1996. The areal pattern of elevated nitrate concentrations has not changed appreciably during the past 15 years. Elevated concentrations were found in a large area east of the Dungeness River and at scattered locations west of the Dungeness River. About 543,200 pounds of nitrogen are estimated to enter the ground-water system in the primary study area each year. Four sources account for about 85 percent of the nitrogen; residential fertilizers, septic systems, mineralization of soil organic matter, and agricultural fertilizers .. It appears that the four major sources are approximately equivalent in amounts of nitrogen. Concentrations of nitrate in the shallow aquifer were significantly higher under residential areas than under natural grasslands or forests. Median nitrate concentrations were 1.3 mg/L under residential areas, 0.55 mg/L under agricultural areas, and 0.12 mg/L under natural grasslands or forests.

Washington↗
USGS2000

Water quality at basic fixed sites in the Upper Colorado River basin National Water-Quality Assessment study unit, October 1995-September 1998

The Upper Colorado River Basin study unit of the U.S. Geological Survey National Water-Quality Assessment Program consists of the Colorado River watershed upstream from near the Colorado-Utah State line. The basin is about equally divided between the Southern Rocky Mountains and the Colorado Plateau physiographic provinces. Data were collected at pairs of indicator sites for mining, increasing urban development, and agricultural land use. Reference basic fixed sites were established in each physiographic province to provide baseline or background information in areas where anthropogenic influences are minimal. Water-quality data collection began at three of the sites in water year 1995. Full implementation of data collection at the 14-site network began in October 1996 and continued through September 1998. Six hundred and sixty water-quality samples were collected at the network sites. Snowmelt runoff dominates the hydrology in most of the basin, but water management for irrigation, storage, and transmountain diversions substantially changes annual runoff characteristics in some areas. Streamflow during water years 1995 and 1997 was generally greater than long-term average conditions. During water year 1996, streamflow also was above average at many sites but not to the extent as seen during 1995 or 1997. Water year 1998 streamflows typically were near or slightly below the long-term average. Extreme low-flow conditions generally did not occur at the sites during the data-collection period. Dissolved nitrate and total phosphorus concentrations at the background site within the Southern Rocky Mountain physiographic province typically were low (hundreths of milligrams per liter). Concentrations in areas of urban development and areas in the lower parts of the basin generally were in the tenths of milligrams per liter and in some agricultural areas were in the milligram per liter range. Median dissolved-solids concentrations at sites in the Southern Rocky Mountains were typically less than 200 milligrams per liter. Small tributaries in the Colorado Plateau and agricultural areas had dissolved-solids concentrations in the thousands of milligrams per liter range. Trace-element concentrations were high, at times, in areas of mining land use. Median zinc concentration for the French Gulch near Breckenridge site was 2,700 micrograms per liter. Comparison of measured concentrations to Colorado State instream standards showed that concentrations of dissolved oxygen, pH, nitrate, and ammonia were within instream standards at all sites. Concentrations of cadmium and zinc at the site on French Gulch (a mining-affected site) often were greater than the State instream standard.

Colorado↗
USGS2000

Pesticide residues in Hemlock and Canadice Lakes and their tributaries in western New York, 1997-98

In 1997, the U.S.Geological Survey (USGS) and the City of Rochester began a cooperative program to study the presence of pesticides (herbicides and insecticides) that occur at trace levels in Hemlock and Canadice Lakes and their tributaries. The most frequently detected pesticides in streamflow and lake-water samples were herbicides commonly used in agriculture — atrazine, metolachlor, and simazine. None of the concentrations of these compounds in the samples exceeded Federal or State water-quality standards. Differences in the concentrations among stream samples can be attributed to land use and streamflow, and the timing of rainfall in relation to herbicide application. The north (lower) end of Hemlock Lake can receive pesticides in agricultural runoff from northern parts of its watershed and Canadice Creek. These pesticide inputs bypass most of the lake and could periodically affect the water quality periodically affect the water quality at the City of Rochester intake. Pesticide concentrations in samples from the intake during this study, however, were about 100 times less than current Federal and State standards for drinking water. Residues of DDT, dieldrin, and mirex are present in low concentrations in the bottom sediments of both lakes, but none were detected in water samples. The use of these insecticides was banned in 1972,and their persistence in the lakebed sediments is probably due to erosion of contaminated soils from agricultural lands.

New York↗
USGS1970

Annotated bibliography on artificial recharge of ground water, 1955-67

Artificial ground-water recharge has become more important as water use by agriculture, industry, and municipalities increases. Water management agencies are increasingly interested in potential use of recharge for pollution abatement, waste-water disposal, and re-use and reclamation of locally available supplies. Research projects and theoretical analyses of operational recharge systems show increased scientific emphasis on the practice. Overall ground-water basin management systems generally now contain considerations of artificial recharge, whether by direct or indirect methods. Artificial ground-water recharge is a means of conserving surface runoff for future use in places where it would otherwise be lost, of protecting ground-water basins from salt-water encroachment along coastal areas, and of storing and distributing imported water. The biblio-graphy emphasizes technology; however, annotations of articles on waste-water reclamation, ground-water management and ground-water basin management are included. Subjects closely related to artificial recharge, including colloidal flow through porous media, field or laboratory instrumentation, and waste disposal by deep well injection are included where they specifically relate to potential recharge problems. Where almost the same material has been published in several journals, all references are included on the assumption that some publications may be more readily available to interested persons than others. Other publications, especially those of foreign literature, provided abstracts that were used freely as time limitations precluded obtaining and annotating all materials. Abstracts taken from published sources are noted. These are: "Abstracts of North American Geology," U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey; "Abstracts of Recent Published Material on Foil and Water Conservation," ARS-41 series, Agricultural F.esearch Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture; "Water and1 Water Engineering," published by Fuel and Metallurgical Journals, Ltd., London, England; "Journal of Geophysical Research," American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C.; "American Society of Civil Engineers Transactions," New York; "Selected Bibliography of Hydrology, United Kingdom, for the Years 1955-59," International Association of Scientific Hydrology; "Water Wells, an Annotated Bibliography," California University Water Resources Center Archives Report 13; "Re-use of Effluent in the Future With an Annotated Bibliography," by G. A. Whetstone, Texas Water Development Board Report 8, Austin, Tex.; "Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation," Washington, D.C.; and "A List of Selected Technical References on Artificial Recharge of Ground-Water Reservoirs," compiled by Roy W. Graves, Tulsa University, Information Services Department, Tulsa, Okla. Other notations are self-explanatory, and initials are those of the authors (DCS, DJG, WK). An unpublished compilation of recharge references by Arnon Arad sponsored by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization during a training period with the U.S. Geological Survey was also used. The bibliography is arranged alphabetically by author. Where an author has more than one publication, the arrangement is chronological; where an author has more than one publication in a given year, a, b, c, . . . are added. The indexing is by subject and geographic location. Each article was assigned the key words or phrases to best characterize its contents. Units of measure are as they were in the original article; abbreviations retained are generally those in common use such as mg/1 (milligrams per liter), ppm (parts per million), gpm (gallons per minute), km (kilometers), m (meters), cu m per hr (cubic meters p^r hour), cfs (cubic feet per second), me/1 (milliequivalents per liter), psi (pounds per square inch), BOD (biochemical oxygen demand), sq m (square meters), gpd (gallons per day), and mgd (million gallons per day). The bibliography was prepared because of the worldwide interest in the field of artificial recharge and the need for a single source of references to the literature published since 1954. The work is a sequel to the "Annotated Bibliography on Artificial Recharge of Ground Water Through 1954," by D. K. Todd, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1477, published in 1959.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1992

Overview of drought and hydrologic conditions in the United States and southern Canada, water years 1986-90

This report describes the drought and hydrologic conditions in the United States and southern Canada during the 1986-90 water years. This drought, which spread from the Eastern United States, where it was referred to as 'the drought of the century,' through the Midwest to the West Coast, brought to mind the Dust Bowl era of the 1930's. However, generally localized floods were numerous, but only one hurricane (Hugo) was of any consequence to the United States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands during a coincident period of anomalously low hurricane activity. The drought began in early 1984 as an 'agricultural drought,' which is a precipitation deficiency that results in a lack of soil moisture that is detrimental to agricultural production. This condition did not affect streamflow until about March or April 1986. A 'hydrological drought,' which is far more serious and widespread than an agricultural drought, was apparent from the low streamflow conditions that occurred after April 1986. To illustrate the changing nature of the drought, maps and synopses of monthly hydrologic conditions for the water years 1986-90 are presented.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS2007

Prioritizing bottomland hardwood forest sites for protection and augmentation

Bottomland hardwood forest has been greatly diminished by conversion to agriculture. Less than 25% of the pre-Columbian bottomland hardwood forests remain in the southeastern United States. Because of the valuable ecological and hydrological functions performed by these forests, their conservation and restoration has been a high priority. Part of these restoration efforts has focused on developing tools that can be used for both assessments at the landscape level and policy implementation at the local level. The distribution of bottomland hardwood forests in the Cache and White River watersheds in eastern Arkansas were examined using existing GIS databases. Criteria were developed to select areas that should be conserved or augmented for wildlife habitat. Over 67% of the study area was classified as agriculture, with bottomland hardwood forest the next largest habitat class. The thickness of a forest fragment was defined as the radius of the largest circle that can be inscribed in a fragment. Thickness was used in three ways. First, individual forest fragments were identified and selected based on ecological function using criteria we established. Second, individual fragments that were too small to support interior species, but large enough that if moderately augmented they could recover that function, were identified and selected. These augmentable fragments were further prioritized by adjacency to habitat that might be suitable for reforestation, namely agriculture. Third, watersheds were prioritized for conservation and augmentation based on the size and distributions of forest fragment thickness and area within each watershed.

Arkansas↗
USGS2024

Fish conservation in streams of the agrarian Mississippi Alluvial Valley: Conceptual model, management actions, and field verification

The effects of agriculture and flood control practices accrued over more than a century have impaired aquatic habitats and their fish communities in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley, the historic floodplain of the Lower Mississippi River prior to leveeing. As a first step to conservation planning and adaptive management, we developed and tested a conceptual model of how changes to this floodplain have affected stream environments and fish assemblages. The model is deliberately simple in structure because it needs to be understood by stakeholders ranging from engineers to farmers who must remain engaged to ensure effective conservation. Testing involved multivariate correlative analyses that included descriptors of land setting, water quality, and fish assemblages representing 376 stream samples taken over two decades and ranging in Strahler stream order from 1 to 8. The conceptual model was adequately corroborated by empirical data, but with unexplained variability that is not uncommon in field surveys where gear biases, temporal biases, and scale biases prevent accurate characterizations. Our conceptual model distinguishes three types of conservation actions relevant to large agricultural floodplains: reforestation of large parcels and riparian zone conservation, in-channel interventions and connectivity preservation, and flow augmentation. Complete restoration of the floodplain may not be an acceptable option to the agriculture community. However, in most cases the application of even the most basic measures can support the return of sensitive aquatic species. We suggest that together these types of conservation actions can bring improved water properties to impacted reaches, higher reach biodiversity, more intolerant species, and more rheophilic fishes.

Mississippi Alluvial Valle↗
USGS2022

Probiotics beyond the farm: Benefits, costs, and considerations of using antibiotic alternatives in livestock

The increasing global expansion of antimicrobial resistant infections warrants the development of effective antibiotic alternative therapies, particularly for use in livestock production, an agricultural sector that is perceived to disproportionately contribute to the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) crisis by consuming nearly two-thirds of the global antibiotic supply. Probiotics and probiotic derived compounds are promising alternative therapies, and their successful use in disease prevention, treatment, and animal performance commands attention. However, insufficient or outdated probiotic screening techniques may unintentionally contribute to this crisis, and few longitudinal studies have been conducted to determine what role probiotics play in AMR dissemination in animal hosts and the surrounding environment. In this review, we briefly summarize the current literature regarding the efficacy, feasibility, and limitations of probiotics, including an evaluation of their impact on the animal microbiome and resistome and their potential to influence AMR in the environment. Probiotic application for livestock is often touted as an ideal alternative therapy that might reduce the need for antibiotic use in agriculture and the negative downstream impacts. However, as detailed in this review, limited research has been conducted linking probiotic usage with reductions in AMR in agricultural or natural environments. Additionally, we discuss the methods, including limitations, of current probiotic screening techniques across the globe, highlighting approaches aimed at reducing antibiotic usage and ensuring safe and effective probiotic mediated health outcomes. Based on this information, we propose economic and logistical considerations for bringing probiotic therapies to market including regulatory roadblocks, future innovations, and the significant gaps in knowledge requiring additional research to ensure probiotics are suitable long-term options for livestock producers as an antibiotic alternative therapy.

Frontiers in Antibiotics↗
USGS2023

Integration of remote sensing and field observations in evaluating DSSAT model for estimating maize and soybean growth and yield in Maryland, USA

Crop models are useful for evaluating crop growth and yield at the field and regional scales, but their applications and accuracies are restricted by input data availability and quality. To overcome difficulties inherent to crop modeling, input data can be enhanced by the incorporation of remotely sensed and field observations into crop growth models. This approach has been recognized to be an important way to monitor crop growth conditions and to predict yield at the field and regional scale. In recent years, satellite remote sensing has provided high-temporal and high-spatial-resolution data that allow for generating continuous time series of biophysical parameters such as vegetation indices, leaf area index, and phenology. The objectives of this study were to use remote sensing along with field observations as inputs to the Decision Support System for Agro-Technology (DSSAT) model to estimate soybean and maize growth and yield. The study used phenology and leaf area index (LAI) data derived from Planet Fusion (daily, 3 m) satellite imagery along with field observation data on crop growth stage, LAI and yield collected at the United State Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center (BARC), Beltsville, Maryland. For maize, a total of 17 treatments (site years) were used (ten treatments for model calibration and seven treatments for validation), while for soybean (maturity groups three and four), a total of 18 treatments were used (nine for calibration and nine for validation). The calibrated model was tested against an independent, multi-location and multi-year set of phenology and yield data (2017–2020) from BARC fields. The model accurately simulated maize and soybean days to flowering and maturity and produced reasonable yield estimates for most fields and years. Model run for independent locations and years produced good results for phenology and yields for both maize and soybean, as indicated by index of agreement (d) values ranging from 0.65 to 0.93 and normalized root-mean-squared error values ranging from 1 to 20%, except for soybean maturity group four. Overall, model performances with respect to phenology and grain yield for maize and soybean were good and consistent with other DSSAT evaluation studies. The inclusion of remote sensing along with field observations in crop-growth model inputs can provide an effective approach for assessing crop conditions, even in regions lacking ground data.

Maryland↗
USGS2020

Substantially greater carbon emissions estimated based on annual land-use transition data

Quantifying land-use and land-cover change (LULCC) effects on carbon sources and sinks has been very challenging because of the availability and quality of LULCC data. As the largest estuary in the United States, Chesapeake Bay is a rapidly changing region and is affected by human activities. A new annual land-use and land-cover (LULC) data product developed by the U.S. Geological Survey Land Change Monitoring and Analysis Program (LCMAP) from 2001 to 2011 was analyzed for transitions between agricultural land, developed land, grassland, forest land and wetland. The Land Use and Carbon Scenario Simulator was used to simulate effects of LULCC and ecosystem disturbance in the south of the Chesapeake Bay Watershed (CBW) on carbon storage and fluxes, with carbon parameters derived from the Integrated Biosphere Simulator. We found that during the study period: (1) areas of forest land, disturbed land, agricultural land and wetland decreased by 90, 82, 57, and 65 km 2 , respectively, but developed lands gained 293 km 2 (29 km 2 annually); (2) total ecosystem carbon stock in the CBW increased by 13 Tg C from 2001 to 2011, mainly due to carbon sequestration of the forest ecosystem; (3) carbon loss was primarily attributed to urbanization (0.224 Tg C·yr −1 ) and agricultural expansion (0.046 Tg C·yr −1 ); and (4) estimated carbon emissions and harvest wood products were greater when estimated with the annual LULC input. We conclude that a dense time series of LULCC, such as that of the LCMAP program, may provide a more accurate accounting of the effects of land use change on ecosystem carbon, which is critical to understanding long-term ecosystem carbon dynamics.

Delaware, Maryland, Virginia↗
USGS2021

Evaluation of SWIR crop residue bands for the Landsat Next mission

This research reports the findings of a Landsat Next expert review panel that evaluated the use of narrow shortwave infrared (SWIR) reflectance bands to measure ligno-cellulose absorption features centered near 2100 and 2300 nm, with the objective of measuring and mapping non-photosynthetic vegetation (NPV), crop residue cover, and the adoption of conservation tillage practices within agricultural landscapes. Results could also apply to detection of NPV in pasture, grazing lands, and non-agricultural settings. Currently, there are no satellite data sources that provide narrowband or hyperspectral SWIR imagery at sufficient volume to map NPV at a regional scale. The Landsat Next mission, currently under design and expected to launch in the late 2020’s, provides the opportunity for achieving increased SWIR sampling and spectral resolution with the adoption of new sensor technology. This study employed hyperspectral data collected from 916 agricultural field locations with varying fractional NPV, fractional green vegetation, and surface moisture contents. These spectra were processed to generate narrow bands with centers at 2040, 2100, 2210, 2260, and 2230 nm, at various bandwidths, that were subsequently used to derive 13 NPV spectral indices from each spectrum. For crop residues with minimal green vegetation cover, two-band indices derived from 2210 and 2260 nm bands were top performers for measuring NPV (R 2 = 0.81, RMSE = 0.13) using bandwidths of 30 to 50 nm, and the addition of a third band at 2100 nm increased resistance to atmospheric correction residuals and improved mission continuity with Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager Band 7. For prediction of NPV over a full range of green vegetation cover, the Cellulose Absorption Index, derived from 2040, 2100, and 2210 nm bands, was top performer (R 2 = 0.77, RMSE = 0.17), but required a narrow (≤20 nm) bandwidth at 2040 nm to avoid interference from atmospheric carbon dioxide absorption. In comparison, broadband NPV indices utilizing Landsat 8 bands centered at 1610 and 2200 nm performed poorly in measuring fractional NPV (R 2 = 0.44), with significantly increased interference from green vegetation.

Remote Sensing↗
USGS2021

Estimating actual evapotranspiration over croplands using vegetation index methods and dynamic harvested area

Advances in estimating actual evapotranspiration (ETa) with remote sensing (RS) have contributed to improving hydrological, agricultural, and climatological studies. In this study, we evaluated the applicability of Vegetation-Index (VI) -based ETa (ET-VI) for mapping and monitoring drought in arid agricultural systems in a region where a lack of ground data hampers ETa work. To map ETa (2000–2019), ET-VIs were translated and localized using Landsat-derived 3- and 2-band Enhanced Vegetation Indices (EVI and EVI2) over croplands in the Zayandehrud River Basin (ZRB) in Iran. Since EVI and EVI2 were optimized for the MODerate Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), using these VIs with Landsat sensors required a cross-sensor transformation to allow for their use in the ET-VI algorithm. The before- and after- impact of applying these empirical translation methods on the ETa estimations was examined. We also compared the effect of cropping patterns’ interannual change on the annual ETa rate using the maximum Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series. The performance of the different ET-VIs products was then evaluated. Our results show that ETa estimates agreed well with each other and are all suitable to monitor ETa in the ZRB. Compared to ETc values, ETa estimations from MODIS-based continuity corrected Landsat-EVI (EVI2) (EVI MccL and EVI2 MccL ) performed slightly better across croplands than those of Landsat-EVI (EVI2) without transformation. The analysis of harvested areas and ET-VIs anomalies revealed a decline in the extent of cultivated areas and a loss of corresponding water resources downstream. The findings show the importance of continuity correction across sensors when using empirical algorithms designed and optimized for specific sensors. Our comprehensive ETa estimation of agricultural water use at 30 m spatial resolution provides an inexpensive monitoring tool for cropping areas and their water consumption.

Remote Sensing↗
USGS2011

Mapping irrigated areas of Ghana using fusion of 30 m and 250 m resolution remote-sensing data

Maps of irrigated areas are essential for Ghana's agricultural development. The goal of this research was to map irrigated agricultural areas and explain methods and protocols using remote sensing. Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) data and time-series Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data were used to map irrigated agricultural areas as well as other land use/land cover (LULC) classes, for Ghana. Temporal variations in the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) pattern obtained in the LULC class were used to identify irrigated and non-irrigated areas. First, the temporal variations in NDVI pattern were found to be more consistent in long-duration irrigated crops than with short-duration rainfed crops due to more assured water supply for irrigated areas. Second, surface water availability for irrigated areas is dependent on shallow dug-wells (on river banks) and dug-outs (in river bottoms) that affect the timing of crop sowing and growth stages, which was in turn reflected in the seasonal NDVI pattern. A decision tree approach using Landsat 30 m one time data fusion with MODIS 250 m time-series data was adopted to classify, group, and label classes. Finally, classes were tested and verified using ground truth data and national statistics. Fuzzy classification accuracy assessment for the irrigated classes varied between 67 and 93%. An irrigated area derived from remote sensing (32,421 ha) was 20-57% higher than irrigated areas reported by Ghana's Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA). This was because of the uncertainties involved in factors such as: (a) absence of shallow irrigated area statistics in GIDA statistics, (b) non-clarity in the irrigated areas in its use, under-development, and potential for development in GIDA statistics, (c) errors of omissions and commissions in the remote sensing approach, and (d) comparison involving widely varying data types, methods, and approaches used in determining irrigated area statistics using GIDA and remote sensing. Extensive field campaigns to help in better classification and validation of irrigated areas using high (30 m ) to very high (<5 m) resolution remote sensing data that are fused with multi temporal data like MODIS are the way forward. This is especially true in accounting for small yet contiguous patches of irrigated areas from dug-wells and dug-outs. ?? 2011 by the authors.

Remote Sensing↗
USGS2007

A coupled remote sensing and simplified surface energy balance approach to estimate actual evapotranspiration from irrigated fields

Accurate crop performance monitoring and production estimation are critical for timely assessment of the food balance of several countries in the world. Since 2001, the Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET) has been monitoring crop performance and relative production using satellite-derived data and simulation models in Africa, Central America, and Afghanistan where ground-based monitoring is limited because of a scarcity of weather stations. The commonly used crop monitoring models are based on a crop water-balance algorithm with inputs from satellite-derived rainfall estimates. These models are useful to monitor rainfed agriculture, but they are ineffective for irrigated areas. This study focused on Afghanistan, where over 80 percent of agricultural production comes from irrigated lands. We developed and implemented a Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEB) model to monitor and assess the performance of irrigated agriculture in Afghanistan using a combination of 1-km thermal data and 250m Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data, both from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor. We estimated seasonal actual evapotranspiration (ETa) over a period of six years (2000-2005) for two major irrigated river basins in Afghanistan, the Kabul and the Helmand, by analyzing up to 19 cloud-free thermal and NDVI images from each year. These seasonal ETa estimates were used as relative indicators of year-to-year production magnitude differences. The temporal water-use pattern of the two irrigated basins was indicative of the cropping patterns specific to each region. Our results were comparable to field reports and to estimates based on watershed-wide crop water-balance model results. For example, both methods found that the 2003 seasonal ETa was the highest of all six years. The method also captured water management scenarios where a unique year-to-year variability was identified in addition to water-use differences between upstream and downstream basins. A major advantage of the energy-balance approach is that it can be used to quantify spatial extent of irrigated fields and their water-use dynamics without reference to source of water as opposed to a water-balance model which requires knowledge of both the magnitude and temporal distribution of rainfall and irrigation applied to fields. ?? 2007 by MDPI.

Sensors↗