SEARCH · Search USGS

Results for “Water Information Series Report”

Search indexed USGS publications on groundwater, aquifers, geologic maps, mineral resources and earthquakes. Explore source records by subject and place.

SourceResearch connectionFrom yearThrough year

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 775 records · Page 43Linked to original sources

USGS2019

Hydrogeologic framework of the Virginia Eastern Shore

The Yorktown-Eastover aquifer system of the Virginia Eastern Shore consists of upper, middle, and lower confined aquifers overlain by correspondingly named confining units and underlain by the Saint Marys confining unit. Miocene- to Pliocene-age marine-shelf sediments observed in 205 boreholes include medium- to coarse-grained sand and shells that compose the aquifers and fine-grained sand, silt, and clay that compose the confining units. The upper confining unit also includes fine-grained and organic-rich back-barrier and estuarine sediments of Pleistocene age. An overlying surficial aquifer is composed mostly of Pleistocene-age nearshore sand and gravel with smaller amounts of cobbles and boulders. In addition, Pleistocene-age sediments that fill three buried paleochannels are for the first time explicitly delineated here as distinct hydrogeologic units. Two aquifers are composed of medium- to coarse-grained fluvial sand and gravel, and an intervening confining unit is composed of fine-grained estuarine sand, silt, clay, and organic material. Aquifer and confining-unit sediments are also mixed with reworked marine-shelf sediments eroded from the sides of the paleochannels. Hydrogeologic units of the Yorktown-Eastover aquifer system generally dip eastward, are as much as several tens of feet thick, and have an undulating configuration possibly resulting from the underlying Chesapeake Bay impact crater. Aquifers and confining units are incised by the three paleochannels along an upward-widening and eastward-lengthening series of structural “windows.” Hydrogeologic units within mainstems and branching tributaries of the paleochannels dip southeastward parallel to slopes of the paleochannels, are as much as several tens of feet thick, and laterally abut the Yorktown-Eastover aquifer system along paleochannel sidewalls. The Yorktown-Eastover aquifer system is thereby hydraulically breached by the paleochannels to alternately create barriers to or conduits for groundwater flow. Results of previously documented aquifer tests at 58 wells indicate that transmissivity is generally greatest in young, shallow, and coarse-grained nearshore and fluvial sediments of the surficial aquifer and paleochannels. Transmissivity progressively decreases with depth in older, deeper, and finer grained marine-shelf sediments of the Yorktown-Eastover aquifer system, probably because they have undergone compaction as a result of greater overburden pressure over longer periods of time. Compiled chloride concentrations in samples from 330 wells generally increase downward, with most of the samples collected at altitudes above −300 feet and with most concentrations less than 250 milligrams per liter. The saltwater-transition zone has a broad trough-like shape aligned with the peninsula, being relatively shallow along the coastline and deeper along the central “spine.” Because movement of the saltwater is slow, the configuration largely reflects groundwater flow prior to widespread groundwater withdrawals. Fresh groundwater has leaked downward along deep parts of the saltwater-transition zone and leaked upward along shallower parts to discharge at the coast. The saltwater-transition zone also exhibits an anomalous ridge across the center of the peninsula. Groundwater levels indicate that the saltwater ridge formed primarily by the Exmore paleochannel acting as a large lateral collector drain. Groundwater levels were lowered, and the position of saltwater-transition zone was elevated, by a flow conduit that intercepted groundwater that otherwise would have flowed toward and discharged along the coastline. Nearly all freshwater on the Virginia Eastern Shore is supplied by groundwater withdrawals, which have lowered water levels, altered hydraulic gradients, and created a concern for saltwater intrusion. Previous characterizations of groundwater conditions that are relied on to manage groundwater development have been limited by a lack of hydrogeologic information, particularly data on buried paleochannels that are critical to safeguarding the groundwater supply. Using recently available expanded information, the U.S. Geological Survey undertook a study in cooperation with the Virginia Department of Environmental Quality during 2016–19 to develop an improved description of the groundwater system called a “hydrogeologic framework.” The hydrogeologic framework can aid water-supply planning and development by providing information on broad trends in aquifer configurations, hydraulic properties, and proximity to saltwater to avoid chloride contamination. Digital models to evaluate effects of groundwater withdrawals can also be improved with expanded data and capabilities to evaluate paleochannel hydraulic connections and the potential for saltwater movement. The hydrogeologic framework is limited by the nonuniform distribution of boreholes and the subjective delineation of aquifers and confining units, including those within paleochannels that are regarded as preliminary. The configuration of the saltwater-transition zone is also regarded as preliminary because of the nonuniform distribution of groundwater samples. Low well-sampling frequency precludes characterizing movement of the saltwater-transition zone. A monitoring strategy of sampling and possibly electromagnetic-induction well logging could be used to detect saltwater movement.

Virginia↗

USGS2016

Isotopic composition of ice cores and meltwater from upper fremont glacier and Galena Creek rock glacier, Wyoming

Meltwater runoff from glaciers can result from various sources, including recent precipitation and melted glacial ice. Determining the origin of the meltwater from glaciers through isotopic analysis can provide information about such things as the character and distribution of ablation on glaciers. A 9.4 m ice core and meltwater were collected in 1995 and 1996 at the glacigenic Galena Creek rock glacier in Wyoming's Absaroka Mountains. Measurements of chlorine‐36 ( 36 Cl), tritium ( 3 H), sulphur‐35 ( 35 S), and delta oxygen‐18 (δ 18 O) were compared to similar measurements from an ice core taken from the Upper Fremont Glacier in the Wind River Range of Wyoming collected in 1991–95. Meltwater samples from three sites on the rock glacier yielded 36 Cl concentrations that ranged from 2.1±1.0×10 6 to 5.8±0.3×10 6 atoms/l. The ice‐core 36 Cl concentrations from Galena Creek ranged from 3.4±0.3×10 5 to 1.0±0.1×10 6 atoms/l. Analysis of an ice core from the Upper Fremont Glacier yielded 36 Cl concentrations of 1.2±0.2×10 6 and 5.2±0.2×10 6 atoms/l for pre‐1940 ice and between 2 ×10 6 and 3×10 6 atoms/l for post‐1980 ice. Purdue's PRIME Lab analyzed the ice from the Upper Fremont Glacier. The highest concentration of 36 Cl in the ice was 77±2×10 6 atoms/l and was deposited during the peak of atmospheric nuclear weapons testing in the late 1950s. This is an order of magnitude greater than the largest measured concentration from both the Upper Fremont Glacier ice core that was not affected by weapons testing fallout and the ice core collected from the Galena Creek rock glacier. Tritium concentrations from the rock glacier ranged from 9.2±0.6 to 13.2±0.8 tritium units (TU) in the meltwater to −1.3±1.3 TU in the ice core. Concentrations of 3 H in the Upper Fremont Glacier ice core ranged from 0 TU in the ice older than 50 years to 6–12 TU in the ice deposited in the last 10 years. The maximum 3H concentration in ice from the Upper Fremont Glacier deposited in the early 1960s during peak weapons testing fallout for this isotope was 360 TU. One meltwater sample from the rock glacier was analyzed for 35 S with a measured concentration of 5.4±1.0 millibecquerel per liter (mBeq/l). Modern precipitation in the Rocky Mountains contains 35 S from 10 to 40 mBeq/L. The δ 18 O results in meltwater from the Galena Creek rock glacier (−17.40±0.1 to −17.98±0.1 per mil) are similar to results for modern precipitation in the Rocky Mountains. Comparison of these isotopic concentrations from the two glaciers suggest that the meltwater at the Galena Creek site is composed mostly of melted snow and rain that percolates through the rock debris that covers the glacier. Additionally, this water from the rock debris is much younger (less than two years) than the reported age of about 2000 years for the subsurface ice at the mid‐glacier coring site. Thus the meltwater from the Galena Creek rock glacier is composed primarily of melted surface snow and rain water rather than melted glacier ice, supporting previous estimates of slow ablation rates beneath the surface debris of the rock glacier.

Geografiska Annaler, Series A: Physical Geography↗

USGS2010

Changes in streamflow and the flux of nutrients in the Mississippi-Atchafalaya River Basin, USA, 1980-2007

Nutrients and freshwater delivered by the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers drive algal production in the northern Gulf of Mexico, which eventually results in the widespread occurrence of hypoxic bottom waters along the Louisiana and Texas coast. Researchers have demonstrated a relation between the extent of the hypoxic zone and the magnitude of streamflow, nutrient fluxes, and nutrient concentrations in the Mississippi River, with springtime streamflows and fluxes being the most predictive. In 1999 the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) estimated the flux of nitrogen, phosphorus, and silica at selected sites in the Mississippi Basin and to the Gulf of Mexico for 1980-1996. These flux estimates provided the baseline information used by the Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed Nutrient Task Force to develop an Action Plan for reducing hypoxia in the northern Gulf of Mexico. The primary goal of the Action Plan was to achieve a reduction in the size (areal extent) of the hypoxic zone from an average of approximately 14,000 square kilometers in 1996-2000 to a 5-year moving average of less than 5,000 square kilometers by 2015. Improved statistical models and adjusted maximum likelihood estimation using USGS Load Estimator (LOADEST) software were used to estimate annual and seasonal nutrient fluxes for 1980-2007 at selected sites on the Mississippi River and its tributaries. These data provide a means to evaluate the influence of natural and anthropogenic effects on delivery of water and nutrients to the Gulf of Mexico; to define subbasins that are the most important contributors of nutrients to the gulf; and to investigate the relations among streamflow, nutrient fluxes, and the size and duration of the Gulf of Mexico hypoxic zone. A comparative analysis between the baseline period of 1980-1996 and 5-year moving averages thereafter indicate that the average annual streamflow and fluxes of total nitrogen, nitrate, orthophosphate, and silica to the Gulf of Mexico have decreased. However, the flux of total phosphorus between the baseline period and subsequent 5-year periods has increased. The average spring (April, May, and June) streamflow and fluxes of silica, total nitrogen, nitrate, and orthophosphate to the Gulf of Mexico also decreased, whereas the spring flux of total phosphorus has increased. Similar changes in streamflow and nutrient flux were observed at many sites Buxtonwithin the basin. The inputs of water, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus from the major subbasins of the Mississippi-Atchafalaya River Basin as a percentage of the to-the-gulf totals have increased from the Ohio River Basin, decreased from the Missouri River Basin, and remained relatively unchanged from the Upper Mississippi, Red, and Arkansas River Basins. Changes in streamflow and nutrient fluxes are related, but short-term variations in sources of streamflow and nutrients complicate the interpretation of factors that affect nutrient delivery to the Gulf of Mexico. Parametric time-series models are used to try and separate natural variability in nutrient flux from changes due to other causes. Results indicate that the decrease in annual nutrient fluxes that has occurred between the 1980-1996 baseline period and more recent years can be largely attributed to natural causes (climate and streamflow) and not management actions or other human controlled activities in the Mississippi-Atchafalaya River Basin. The downward trends in total nitrogen, nitrate, ammonium, and orthophosphate that were detected at either the Mississippi River near St. Francisville, La., or the Atchafalaya River at Melville, La., occurred prior to 1995. In spite of the general decrease in nutrient flux, the average size of the Gulf of Mexico hypoxic zone has increased between 1997 and 2007. The reasons for this are not clear but could be due to the type or nature of nutrient delivery. Whereas the annual flux of total nitrogen to the Gulf of Mexico has decreased, the proporti

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2015

California State Waters Map Series — Offshore of Point Reyes, California

This publication about the Offshore of Point Reyes map area includes ten map sheets that contain explanatory text, in addition to this descriptive pamphlet and a data catalog of geographic information system (GIS) files. Sheets 1, 2, and 3 combine data from four different sonar surveys to generate comprehensive high-resolution bathymetry and acoustic-backscatter coverage of the map area. These data reveal a range of physiographic features (highlighted in the perspective views on sheet 4) such as the flat, sediment-covered seafloor in Drakes Bay, as well as abundant “scour depressions” on the Bodega Head–Tomales Point shelf (see sheet 9) and local, tectonically controlled bedrock uplifts. To validate geological and biological interpretations of the sonar data shown in sheets 1, 2, and 3, the U.S. Geological Survey towed a camera sled over specific offshore locations, collecting both video and photographic imagery; these “ground-truth” surveying data are summarized on sheet 6. Sheet 5 is a “seafloor character” map, which classifies the seafloor on the basis of depth, slope, rugosity (ruggedness), and backscatter intensity and which is further informed by the ground-truth-survey imagery. Sheet 7 is a map of “potential habitats,” which are delineated on the basis of substrate type, geomorphology, seafloor process, or other attributes that may provide a habitat for a specific species or assemblage of organisms. Sheet 8 compiles representative seismic-reflection profiles from the map area, providing information on the subsurface stratigraphy and structure of the map area. Sheet 9 shows the distribution and thickness of young sediment (deposited over the last about 21,000 years, during the most recent sea-level rise) in both the map area and the larger Salt Point to Drakes Bay region, interpreted on the basis of the seismic-reflection data, and it identifies the Offshore of Point Reyes map area as lying within the Bodega Head–Tomales Point shelf, Point Reyes bar, and Bolinas shelf domains. Sheet 10 is a geologic map that merges onshore geologic mapping (compiled from existing maps by the California Geological Survey) and new offshore geologic mapping that is based on integration of high-resolution bathymetry and backscatter imagery (sheets 1, 2, 3), seafloor-sediment and rock samples (Reid and others, 2006), digital camera and video imagery (sheet 6), and high-resolution seismic-reflection profiles (sheet 8), as well as aerial-photographic interpretation of nearshore areas. The information provided by the map sheets, pamphlet, and data catalog have a broad range of applications. High-resolution bathymetry, acoustic backscatter, ground-truth-surveying imagery, and habitat mapping all contribute to habitat characterization and ecosystem-based management by providing essential data for delineation of marine protected areas and ecosystem restoration. Many of the maps provide high-resolution baselines that will be critical for monitoring environmental change associated with climate change, coastal development, or other forcings. High-resolution bathymetry is a critical component for modeling coastal flooding caused by storms and tsunamis, as well as inundation associated with longer term sea-level rise. Seismic-reflection and bathymetric data help characterize earthquake and tsunami sources, critical for natural-hazard assessments of coastal zones. Information on sediment distribution and thickness is essential to the understanding of local and regional sediment transport, as well as the development of regional sediment-management plans. In addition, siting of any new offshore infrastructure (for example, pipelines, cables, or renewable-energy facilities) will depend on high-resolution mapping. Finally, this mapping will both stimulate and enable new scientific research and also raise public awareness of, and education about, coastal environments and issues.

California↗

USGS2005

Compilation of geologic, hydrologic, and ground-water flow modeling information for the Spokane Valley-Rathdrum Prairie aquifer, Spokane County, Washington, and Bonner and Kootenai Counties, Idaho

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Idaho Department of Water Resources and Washington Department of Ecology compiled and described geologic, hydrologic, and ground-water flow modeling information about the Spokane Valley-Rathdrum Prairie (SVRP) aquifer in northern Idaho and northeastern Washington. Descriptions of the hydrogeologic framework, water-budget components, ground- and surface-water interactions, computer flow models, and further data needs are provided. The SVRP aquifer, which covers about 370 square miles including the Rathdrum Prairie, Idaho and the Spokane valley and Hillyard Trough, Washington, was designated a Sole Source Aquifer by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in 1978. Continued growth, water management issues, and potential effects on water availability and water quality in the aquifer and in the Spokane and Little Spokane Rivers have illustrated the need to better understand and manage the region's water resources. The SVRP aquifer is composed of sand, gravel, cobbles, and boulders primarily deposited by a series of catastrophic glacial outburst floods from ancient Glacial Lake Missoula. The material deposited in this high-energy environment is coarser-grained than is typical for most basin-fill deposits, resulting in an unusually productive aquifer with well yields as high as 40,000 gallons per minute. In most places, the aquifer is bounded laterally by bedrock composed of granite, metasedimentary rocks, or basalt. The lower boundary of the aquifer is largely unknown except along the margins or in shallower parts of the aquifer where wells have penetrated its entire thickness and reached bedrock or silt and clay deposits. Based on surface geophysics, the thickness of the aquifer is about 500 ft near the Washington-Idaho state line, but more than 600 feet within the Rathdrum Prairie and more than 700 feet in the Hillyard trough based on drilling records. Depth to water in the aquifer is greatest in the northern Rathdrum Prairie (about 500 feet) and least near the city of Spokane along the Spokane River (less than about 50 feet). Ground-water flow is south from near the southern end of Lake Pend Oreille and Hoodoo Valley, through the Rathdrum Prairie, then west toward Spokane. In Spokane, the aquifer splits and water moves north through the Hillyard Trough as well as west through the Trinity Trough. From the Trinity Trough water flows north along the western arm of the aquifer. The aquifer's discharge area is along the Little Spokane River and near Long Lake, Washington. A compilation of estimates of water-budget components, including recharge (precipitation, irrigation, canal leakage, septic tank effluent, inflow from tributary basins, and flow from the Spokane River) and discharge (withdrawals from wells, flow to the Spokane and Little Spokane Rivers, evapotranspiration, and underflow to Long Lake) illustrates that these estimated values should be compared with caution due to several variables including the area and time period of interest as well as methods employed in making the estimates. Numerous studies have documented the dynamic ground-water and surface-water interaction between the SVRP aquifer and the Spokane and Little Spokane Rivers. Gains and losses vary throughout the year, as well as the locations of gains and losses. September 2004 streamflow measurements indicated that the upper reach of the Spokane River between Post Falls and downstream at Flora Road lost 321 cubic feet per second. A gain of 736 cubic feet per second was measured between the Flora Road site and downstream at Green Street Bridge. A loss of 124 cubic feet per second was measured for the reach between the Green Street Bridge and the Spokane River at Spokane gaging station. The river gained about 87 cubic feet per second between the Spokane River at Spokane gaging station and the TJ Meenach Bridge. Overall, the Spokane River gained about 284 cubic feet per second between the Post Falls,

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2006

Physical habitat classification and instream flow modeling to determine habitat availability during low-flow periods, North Fork Shenandoah River, Virginia

Increasing development and increasing water withdrawals for public, industrial, and agricultural water supply threaten to reduce streamflows in the Shenandoah River basin in Virginia. Water managers need more information to balance human water-supply needs with the daily streamflows necessary for maintaining the aquatic ecosystems. To meet the need for comprehensive information on hydrology, water supply, and instream-flow requirements of the Shenandoah River basin, the U.S. Geological Survey and the Northern Shenandoah Valley Regional Commission conducted a cooperative investigation of habitat availability during low-flow periods on the North Fork Shenandoah River. Historic streamflow data and empirical data on physical habitat, river hydraulics, fish community structure, and recreation were used to develop a physical habitat simulation model. Hydraulic measurements were made during low, medium, and high flows in six reaches at a total of 36 transects that included riffles, runs, and pools, and that had a variety of substrates and cover types. Habitat suitability criteria for fish were developed from detailed fish-community sampling and microhabitat observations. Fish were grouped into four guilds of species and life stages with similar habitat requirements. Simulated habitat was considered in the context of seasonal flow regimes to show the availability of flows that sustain suitable habitat during months when precipitation and streamflow are scarce. The North Fork Shenandoah River basin was divided into three management sections for analysis purposes: the upper section, middle section, and lower section. The months of July, August, and September were chosen to represent a low-flow period in the basin with low mean monthly flows, low precipitation, high temperatures, and high water withdrawals. Exceedance flows calculated from the combined data from these three months describe low-flow periods on the North Fork Shenandoah River. Long-term records from three streamflow-gaging stations were used to characterize the flow regime: North Fork Shenandoah River at Cootes Store, Va. (1925-2002), North Fork Shenandoah River at Mount Jackson, Va. (1943-2002), and North Fork Shenandoah River near Strasburg, Va. (1925-2002). The predominant mesohabitat types (14 percent riffle, 67.3 percent run, and 18.7 percent pool) were classified along the entire river (100 miles) to assist in the selection of reaches for hydraulic and fish community data collection. The upper section has predominantly particle substrate, ranging in size from sand to boulders, and the shortest habitat units. The middle section is a transitional section with increased bedrock substrate and habitat unit length. The lower section has predominantly bedrock substrate and the longest habitat units in the river. The model simulations show that weighted usable-habitat area in the upper management section is highest at flows higher than the 25-percent exceedance flow for July, August, and September. During these three months, total weighted usable-habitat area in this section is often less than the simulated maximum weighted usable-habitat area. Habitat area in the middle management section is highest at flows between the 25- and 75-percent exceedance flows for July, August, and September. In the middle section during these months, both the actual weighted usable-habitat area and the simulated maximum weighted usable-habitat area are associated with this flow range. Weighted usable-habitat area in the lower management section is highest at flows lower than the 75-percent exceedance flow for July, August, and September. In the lower section during these three months, some weighted usable-habitat area is available, but the normal range of flows does not include the simulated maximum weighted usable-habitat area. A time-series habitat analysis associated with the historic streamflow, zero water withdrawals, and doubled water withdrawals was completed. During s

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2016

Construction, calibration, and validation of the RBM10 water temperature model for the Trinity River, northern California

We constructed a one-dimensional daily averaged water-temperature model to simulate Trinity River temperatures for 1980–2013. The purpose of this model is to assess effects of water-management actions on water temperature and to provide water temperature inputs for a salmon population dynamics model. Simulated meteorological data, observed streamflow data, and observed water temperatures were used as model inputs to simulate a continuous 34-year time series of historical daily mean water temperature at eight locations along 112.2 river miles from Lewiston Dam near Weaverville, California, downstream to the Klamath River confluence. To demonstrate the utility of the model to inform management actions, we simulated three management alternatives to assess the effects of bypass flow augmentation in a drought year, 1994, and compared those results to the simulated historical baseline, referred to as the “No Action” alternative scenario. Augmentation flows from the Lewiston Dam bypass consist of temperature-controlled releases capable of cooling downstream water temperatures in hot times of the year, which can reduce the probability of disease outbreaks in fish populations. Outputs from the Trinity River water-temperature model were then used as inputs to an existing water-temperature model of the Klamath River to evaluate the effect of augmentation flow releases on water temperatures in the lower Klamath River. We structured the Trinity River water-temperature model in River Basin Model-10 (RBM10), which uses a simple equilibrium flow model, assuming discharge in each river segment on each day is transmitted downstream instantaneously. The model uses a heat-budget formulation to quantify heat flux at the air-water interface. Inputs for the heat budget are calculated from daily mean meteorological data, including net shortwave solar radiation, net longwave atmospheric radiation, air temperature, wind speed, vapor pressure, and a psychrometric constant needed to calculate the Bowen ratio. The modeling domain was divided into eight reaches ranging in length from 8.8 to 20.6 miles, which were calibrated and validated separately with observed water temperature data collected irregularly from 1980 to 2013. Root mean square errors of observed and simulated water temperatures for the eight reaches ranged from 0.25 to 1.12 degrees Celsius (°C). Mean absolute errors ranged from 0.18 to 0.89 °C. For model validation, a k -fold cross-validation technique was used. Validation root mean square error and mean absolute error for the eight reaches ranged from 0.24 to 1.11 °C and from 0.18 to 0.89 °C, respectively. Augmentation scenarios were based on historical hydrological and meteorological data, combined with prescribed flow and temperature releases from Lewiston Dam provided by the Bureau of Reclamation. Water releases were scheduled to achieve targeted flows of 2,500, 2,800, and 3,200 cubic feet per second in the lower Klamath River from mid-August through late September, coinciding with the upstream migration of adult fall-run Chinook salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ). Water temperatures simulated at river mile 5.7 on the Klamath River showed a 5 °C decrease from the No Action historical baseline, which was near or greater than 23 °C when augmentation began in mid-August. Thereafter, an approximate 1 °C difference among augmentation scenarios emerged, with the decrease in water temperature commensurate to the level of augmentation. All augmentation scenarios simulated water temperatures equal to or less than 21 °C from mid-August through late September. Water temperatures equal to or greater than 23 °C are of particular interest because of a thermal threshold known to inhibit upstream migration of salmon. When temperatures exceed this approximate 23 °C threshold, Chinook salmon are known to congregate in high densities in thermal refugias and show extended residence times, which can potentially trigger epizootic outbreaks such as of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (“Ich”) and Flavobacterium columnare (“Columnaris”) that were the causative factors of the Klamath River fish kill in 2002. A model with the ability to simulate water temperatures in response to management actions at the basin scale is a valuable asset for water managers who must make decisions about how best to use limited water resources, which directly affect the state of fisheries in the Klamath Basin.

California↗

USGS2011

Groundwater quality of the Gulf Coast aquifer system, Houston, Texas, 2010

During March–December 2010, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the city of Houston, collected source-water samples from 60 municipal supply wells in the Houston area. These data were collected as part of an ongoing study to determine concentrations, spatial extent, and associated geochemical conditions that might be conducive for mobility and transport of selected naturally occurring contaminants (selected trace elements and radionuclides) in the Gulf Coast aquifer system in the Houston area. In the summers of 2007 and 2008, a reconnaissance-level survey of these constituents in untreated water from 28 municipal supply wells was completed in the Houston area. Included in this report are the complete analytical results for 47 of the 60 samples collected in 2010—those results which were received from the laboratories and reviewed by the authors as of December 31, 2010. All of the wells sampled were screened in the Gulf Coast aquifer system; 22 were screened entirely in the Evangeline aquifer, and the remaining 25 wells contained screened intervals that intersected both Evangeline and Chicot aquifers. The data documented in this report were collected as part of an ongoing study to characterize source-water-quality conditions in untreated groundwater prior to drinking-water treatment. An evaluation of contaminant occurrence in source water provides background information regarding the presence of a contaminant in the environment. Because source-water samples were collected prior to any treatment or blending that potentially could alter contaminant concentrations, the water-quality results documented by this report represent the quality of the source water, not the quality of finished drinking water provided to the public. Samples were analyzed for major ions (calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, bromide, chloride, fluoride, silica, and sulfate), residue on evaporation (dissolved solids), trace elements (arsenic, barium, boron, chromium, iron, lithium, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, and vanadium), and selected radionuclides (gross alpha- and beta-particle activity [at 72 hours and 30 days], carbon-14, radium-226, radon-222, and uranium). Field measurements were made of selected physicochemical (relating to both physical and chemical) properties (oxidation-reduction potential, turbidity, dissolved-oxygen concentration, pH, specific conductance, water temperature, and alkalinity) and unfiltered sulfides. Similar to the results from the reconnaissance survey, physicochemical properties, major ions, and trace elements varied considerably. The ranges of selected physicochemical properties were as follows: oxidation-reduction potential ranged from -173 to 466 millivolts, dissolved oxygen ranged from less than 0.1 to 4.4 milligrams per liter, pH ranged from 7.2 to 7.8, specific conductance ranged from 439 to 724 microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius, and alkalinity ranged from 159 to 276 milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate. The largest ranges in concentration for filtered major ion constituents were obtained for cations sodium and calcium and for anions chloride and sulfate. Arsenic concentrations measured in samples from the 47 wells ranged from 1.6 to 23.5 micrograms per liter. The maximum concentration of arsenic (23.5 micrograms per liter) was measured in the source-water sample from well LJ-65-12-328. Quantifiable concentrations of barium, boron, lithium, molybdenum, and strontium were measured in all 47 filtered, source-water samples. Quantifiable concentrations of manganese were measured in 46 source-water samples, and an estimated concentration of manganese was measured in 1 sample. Chromium, iron, selenium, and vanadium were detected in 24 or more of the 47 source-water samples. Gross alpha-particle activities and beta-particle activities for all 47 samples were analyzed at 72 hours after sample collection and again at 30 days after sample collection, allowing for the measurement of the activity of short-lived isotopes. Gross alpha-particle activities reported in this report were not adjusted for activity contributions by radon or uranium and, therefore, are conservatively high estimates if compared to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Primary Drinking Water Regulation for adjusted gross alpha-particle activity. The gross alpha-particle activities at 30 days in the samples ranged from R0.60 to 25.5 picocuries per liter and at 72 hours ranged from 2.58 to 39.7 picocuries per liter, and the "R" preceding the value of 0.60 picocuries per liter refers to a nondetected result less than the sample-specific critical level. Gross beta-particle activities measured at 30 days ranged from 1.17 to 14.4 picocuries per liter and at 72 hours ranged from 1.97 to 4.4 picocuries per liter. Filtered uranium was detected in quantifiable amounts in all of the 47 wells sampled. The uranium concentrations ranged from 0.03 to 42.7 micrograms per liter. One sample was analyzed for carbon-14, and the amount of modern atmospheric carbon was reported as 0.2 percent. Six source-water samples collected from municipal supply wells were analyzed for radium-226, and all of the concentrations were considered detectable concentrations (greater than their associated sample-specific critical level). Three source-water samples collected were analyzed for radon-222, and all of the concentrations were substantially greater than the associated sample-specific critical level.

Texas↗

USGS1980

Data-base system for northern Midwest regional aquifer-system analysis

The U.S. Geological Survey is conducting a study of the Cambrian and Ordovician aquifer system of the northern Midwest as part of a national series of Regional Aquifer-Systems Analysis (RASA). An integral part of this study will be a simulation of the ground-water flow regime using the Geological Survey's three-dimensional finite-difference model. The first step in the modeling effort is the design and development of a systematic set of processes to facilitate the collection, evaluation, manipulation, and use of large quantities of information. A computerized data-base system to accomplish these goals has been completed for the northern Midwest RASA. The input to the data-base system consists of either point values or contour maps of the hydrogeologic data required by the model. Digital samples of contoured surfaces are obtained by machine digitization. Uniformly spaced model-node values are then computed from the discrete data by two-dimensional interpolation. The interpolator uses the regional (long wavelength) characteristics of the data to compute a surface with minimum total curvature. Local (short wavelength) data are merged with the regional surface to produce the model-node values at the desired spacing. Nonuniformly spaced nodal values may be obtained by fitting two-dimensional polynomials (bicubic splines) to surfaces formed by uniformly spaced points and solving for the surface values at the node locations. The uniformly or nonuniformly spaced node values constitute the output of the data-base system and in turn are the input arrays of data values for the ground-water flow model. Management of the data base is facilitated by forming a data file for each model input parameter and for other hydrogeologic data used in the study. The data files are subdivided into elements consisting of individual model-layer arrays. In this form the data base can be readily accessed and edited. In addition to the interpolation programs, software components of the system include programs: (1) to transform geographic coordinates on a Lambert conformal conic projection to cartesian coordinates and vice versa, (2) to machine contour gridded data, (3) to expedite manipulation and editing of data, and (4) to perform various interarray computations. The data-base system has the following attributes: (1) manual handling of data is minimized and machine handling of data is maximized, (2) given unequally spaced point data over the extent of a study area, model input arrays for any reasonable uniform node spacing can be rapidly computed, (3) accuracy of computed node values are generally compatible with accuracy and spatial distribution of point data, (4) a relatively large class of nonuniformly spaced node configurations can be computed, (5) data within data-base files can be easily accessed and readily edited, and (6) the occurrence of data processing errors at various stages of data-base generation is monitored by machine contouring the computed grids. Functioning of the data-base system is illustrated by the sequence of steps required to produce a model-input array of transmissivity, given raw geologic and hydraulic conductivity data.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS2015

Geohydrologic and water-quality characterization of a fractured-bedrock test hole in an area of Marcellus shale gas development, Tioga County, Pennsylvania

An integrated analysis of core, geophysical logs, gas isotopes, and specific-depth water-quality samples from the Cherry Flats test hole was used to characterize the stratigraphy, water-bearing zones, and groundwater quality at a site in southern Tioga County, Pennsylvania. The study was completed as a cooperative effort between the Pennsylvania Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey (BTGS) and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The multi-disciplinary characterization of the test hole provided information to aid the bedrock mapping of the Cherry Flats 7.5-minute quadrangle by BTGS, and to help quantify the depth and character of fresh and saline groundwater in an area of shale-gas exploration. The Cherry Flats test hole was cored to a depth of 1,513 feet (ft) below land surface (bls) and cased to 189 ft through the collapsed mine workings of the former Arnot No. 2 underground coal mine. The test hole penetrated 128.0 ft of Allegheny Formation and 154.1 ft of Pottsville Formation of Pennsylvanian age, 564.8 ft of Huntley Mountain Formation of Mississippian and Devonian age, and 666.3 ft of Catskill Formation of Devonian age. Core recovery was nearly 100 percent, except where complete core loss occurred from a depth of 1,231.1 to 1,240.8 ft. Several coal beds and mined-out coal horizons were penetrated in the Allegheny and Pottsville Formations. The test hole penetrated the entire thickness of the Huntley Mountain Formation and was completed in the middle part of the Catskill Formation. Bedding features penetrated by the test hole were estimated to have a strike of 021 degrees and dip about 1.7 degrees to the southeast, consistent with the test-hole location on the north limb of the Blossburg syncline. Most fractures penetrated by the test hole were parallel to bedding, with steeply dipping fractures present but much less common. Fracture density, determined from optical televiewer, acoustic televiewer, and video logs, generally increased with depth from the base of casing to about 400 ft bls, then decreased with depth to the bottom of the hole except for an increase from 506 to 568 ft bls. Very few fractures were penetrated from 600 to 850 ft. The depths of fresh and saline water-bearing zones were identified in the test hole by geophysical-log analysis and, for inflow zones, verified by specific-depth groundwater sampling by the use of a wire-line point sampler. Under ambient conditions and during pumping of the test hole, fresh water entered the hole from fractures at 567 and 580.5 ft bls, within grayish-red siltstone and greenish-gray sandstone, respectively, and flowed upward and exited at fractures from 303 to 319.5 ft; a very minor amount exited into fractures within coal beds at 240.4 and 252 ft bls. Transmissivity, estimated from analysis of the specific-capacity data and flowmeter logs, was about 18 ft2/d for the fracture zones from 567 to 580.5 ft and 6.7 ft2/d for fracture zones from 240.4 to 252 ft bls. The analysis estimated the hydraulic head of the lower zone and that of the upper flow zone was 8 ft higher and 37 ft lower than the composite water level in the test hole, respectively. Water samples of the freshwater inflow from zones at 567 to 580.5 ft bls had a total dissolved solids concentration of 577 mg/L indicating that these zone are in the lower part of the active groundwater flow system. Below the freshwater-bearing zone at 580.5 ft, the flowmeter did not detect any vertical flow in the test hole, and the gradient of the temperature log approached the geothermal gradient, indicating little ambient fluid flow and minimal fracture transmissivity below this depth. However, small seeps of saline water having total dissolved solids concentrations of greater than about 6,200 mg/L at 945 and 946 ft bls, from dark-greenish-gray to greenish-gray silty beds, were delineated by a time series of specific conductancelogs and observed on the video log. A wat

Pennsylvania↗

USGS2009

Archive of digital boomer and CHIRP seismic reflection data collected during USGS field activity 08LCA03 in Lake Panasoffkee, Florida, May 2008

In May of 2008, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) conducted geophysical surveys in Lake Panasoffkee, located in central Florida, as part of the USGS Lakes and Coastal Aquifers (LCA) study. This report serves as an archive of unprocessed digital boomer and Compressed High Intensity Radar Pulse (CHIRP)* seismic reflection data, trackline maps, navigation files, Field Activity Collection System (FACS) logs, Geographic Information System (GIS) files, and formal Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) metadata. Filtered and gained (a relative increase in signal amplitude) digital images of the seismic profiles and geospatially corrected interactive profiles are also provided. Refer to the Acronyms page for expansions of acronyms and abbreviations used in this report. *Due to poor data acquisition conditions associated with the lake bottom sediments, only two CHIRP tracklines were collected during this field activity. The archived trace data are in standard Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG) SEG-Y format (Barry and others, 1975) and may be downloaded and processed with commercial or public domain software such as Seismic Unix (SU). Example SU processing scripts and USGS software for viewing the SEG-Y files (Zihlman, 1992) are provided. The USGS Florida Integrated Science Center (FISC) - St. Petersburg assigns a unique identifier to each cruise or field activity. For example, 08LCA03 tells us the data were collected in 2008 for the Lakes and Coastal Aquifers (LCA) study and the data were collected during the third field activity for that study in that calendar year. Refer to http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/infobank/programs/html/definition/activity.html for a detailed description of the method used to assign the field activity ID. The naming convention used for each seismic line is as follows: yye##a, where 'yy' are the last two digits of the year in which the data were collected, 'e' is a 1-letter abbreviation for the equipment type (for example, b for boomer and c for CHIRP), '##' is a 2-digit number representing a specific track, and 'a' is a letter representing the section of a line if recording was prematurely terminated or rerun for quality or acquisition problems. The boomer plate is an acoustic energy source that consists of capacitors charged to a high voltage and discharged through a transducer in the water. The transducer is towed on a sled floating on the water surface and, when discharged, emits a short acoustic pulse, or shot, which propagates through the water, sediment column, or rock beneath. The acoustic energy is reflected at density boundaries (such as the seafloor, sediment, or rock layers beneath the seafloor), detected by the receiver, and recorded by a PC-based seismic acquisition system. This process is repeated at timed intervals (for example, 0.5 s) and recorded for specific intervals of time (for example, 100 ms). In this way, a two-dimensional (2-D) vertical profile of the shallow geologic structure beneath the ship track is produced. Figure 1 displays the boomer acquisition geometry. The EdgeTech SB-424 CHIRP system used for this survey has a vertical resolution of 4 - 8 cm, a penetration depth that is usually less than 2 m beneath the seafloor, and uses a signal of continuously varying frequency. The towfish is a sound source and receiver, which is typically towed 2 - 5 m above the seafloor. The acoustic energy is reflected at density boundaries (such as the seafloor or sediment layers beneath the seafloor), detected by a receiver, and recorded by a PC-based seismic acquisition system. This process is repeated at timed intervals (for example, 0.125 s) and recorded for specific intervals of time (for example, 50 ms); the resulting profile is a two-dimensional vertical image of the shallow geologic structure beneath the ship track. Figure 2 displays the acquisition geometry for the CHIRP system. Refer to table 1 for a summary of acquisition parameters and table 2 for trackline statistics.

Florida↗

USGS2014

Simulation of the effects of rainfall and groundwater use on historical lake water levels, groundwater levels, and spring flows in central Florida

The urbanization of central Florida has progressed substantially in recent decades, and the total population in Lake, Orange, Osceola, Polk, and Seminole Counties more than quadrupled from 1960 to 2010. The Floridan aquifer system is the primary source of water for potable, industrial, and agricultural purposes in central Florida. Despite increases in groundwater withdrawals to meet the demand of population growth, recharge derived by infiltration of rainfall in the well-drained karst terrain of central Florida is the largest component of the long-term water balance of the Floridan aquifer system. To complement existing physics-based groundwater flow models, artificial neural networks and other data-mining techniques were used to simulate historical lake water level, groundwater level, and spring flow at sites throughout the area. Historical data were examined using descriptive statistics, cluster analysis, and other exploratory analysis techniques to assess their suitability for more intensive data-mining analysis. Linear trend analyses of meteorological data collected by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration at 21 sites indicate 67 percent of sites exhibited upward trends in air temperature over at least a 45-year period of record, whereas 76 percent exhibited downward trends in rainfall over at least a 95-year period of record. Likewise, linear trend analyses of hydrologic response data, which have varied periods of record ranging in length from 10 to 79 years, indicate that water levels in lakes (307 sites) were about evenly split between upward and downward trends, whereas water levels in 69 percent of wells (out of 455 sites) and flows in 68 percent of springs (out of 19 sites) exhibited downward trends. Total groundwater use in the study area increased from about 250 million gallons per day (Mgal/d) in 1958 to about 590 Mgal/d in 1980 and remained relatively stable from 1981 to 2008, with a minimum of 559 Mgal/d in 1994 and a maximum of 773 Mgal/d in 2000. The change in groundwater-use trend in the early 1980s and the following period of relatively slight trend is attributable to the concomitant effects of increasing public-supply withdrawals and decreasing use of water by the phosphate industry and agriculture. On the basis of available historical data and exploratory analyses, empirical lake water-level, groundwater-level, and spring-flow models were developed for 22 lakes, 23 wells, and 6 springs. Input time series consisting of various frequencies and frequency-band components of daily rainfall (1942 to 2008) and monthly total groundwater use (1957 to 2008) resulted in hybrid signal-decomposition artificial neural network models. The final models explained much of the variability in observed hydrologic data, with 43 of the 51 sites having coefficients of determination exceeding 0.6, and the models matched the magnitude of the observed data reasonably well, such that models for 32 of the 51 sites had root-mean-square errors less than 10 percent of the measured range of the data. The Central Florida Artificial Neural Network Decision Support System was developed to integrate historical databases and the 102 site-specific artificial neural network models, model controls, and model output into a spreadsheet application with a graphical user interface that allows the user to simulate scenarios of interest. Overall, the data-mining analyses indicate that the Floridan aquifer system in central Florida is a highly conductive, dynamic, open system that is strongly influenced by external forcing. The most important external forcing appears to be rainfall, which explains much of the multiyear cyclic variability and long-term downward trends observed in lake water levels, groundwater levels, and spring flows. For most sites, groundwater use explains less of the observed variability in water levels and flows than rainfall. Relative groundwater-use impacts are greater during droughts, however, and long-term trends in water levels and flows were identified that are consistent with historical groundwater-use patterns. The sensitivity of the hydrologic system to rainfall is expected, owing to the well-drained karst terrain and relatively thin confinement of the Floridan aquifer system in much of central Florida. These characteristics facilitate the relatively rapid transmission of infiltrating water from rainfall to the water table and contribute to downward leakage of water to the Floridan aquifer system. The areally distributed nature of rainfall, as opposed to the site-specific nature of groundwater use, and the generally high transmissivity and low storativity properties of the semiconfined Floridan aquifer system contribute to the prevalence of water-level and flow patterns that mimic rainfall patterns. In general, the data-mining analyses demonstrate that the hydrologic system in central Florida is affected by groundwater use differently during wet periods, when little or no system storage is available (high water levels), compared to dry periods, when there is excess system storage (low water levels). Thus, by driving the overall behavior of the system, rainfall indirectly influences the degree to which groundwater use will effect persistent trends in water levels and flows, with groundwater-use impacts more prevalent during periods of low water levels and spring flows caused by low rainfall and less prevalent during periods of high water levels and spring flows caused by high rainfall. Differences in the magnitudes of rainfall and groundwater use during wet and dry periods also are important determinants of hydrologic response. An important implication of the data-mining analyses is that rainfall variability at subannual to multidecadal timescales must be considered in combination with groundwater use to provide robust system-response predictions that enhance sustainable resource management in an open karst aquifer system. The data-driven approach was limited, however, by the confounding effects of correlation between rainfall and groundwater use, the quality and completeness of the historical databases, and the spatial variations in groundwater use. The data-mining analyses indicate that available historical data when used alone do not contain sufficient information to definitively quantify the related individual effects of rainfall and groundwater use on hydrologic response. The knowledge gained from data-driven modeling and the results from physics-based modeling, when compared and used in combination, can yield a more comprehensive assessment and a more robust understanding of the hydrologic system than either of the approaches used separately.

Florida↗

USGS2024

Annotated bibliography of scientific research relevant to oil and gas reclamation best management practices in the western United States, published from 1969 through 2020

Integrating recent scientific knowledge into management decisions supports effective natural resource management and can lead to better resource outcomes. However, finding and accessing scientific knowledge can be time consuming and costly. To assist in this process, the U.S. Geological Survey has created a series of annotated bibliographies on topics of management concern for lands in the western United States (U.S.). Oil and gas development on public lands is a long-standing and substantial component of local and regional economies and has expanded in recent decades, particularly on public lands in the western U.S. This development is associated with extensive networks of pipelines, roads, and processing facilities, across which reclamation is Federally mandated following initial well pad development (“interim” reclamation) and once resource extraction is complete (“final” reclamation). Reclamation is critical for recovering ecological services to energy-affected lands, including vegetation productivity, wildlife habitat, water and air quality, and soil stability (for example, resistance to wind and water erosion). However, reclamation of oil and gas affected lands in the western U.S. has proved challenging due to an array of regulatory and environmental factors, such as minimally developed soils, short growing seasons, herbivory, high winds, invasive species, rugged terrain, and in particular, arid climates associated with low total precipitation, high evapotranspiration rates, and highly variable precipitation patterns. We compiled and summarized journal articles, government reports, technical reports, proceedings, and theses and dissertations relevant to oil and gas reclamation. We constrained our search to products published on or before December 31, 2020 but did not limit our search by a starting date; the earliest product resulting from this effort was published in March 1969. Second, we manually scanned the last 15 years (2005-2020) of tables of contents in journals, bibliographies, and proceedings of which we were aware would contain articles highly relevant to this bibliography. We carried out the search for these products through multiple means: (1) performing a structured search of two reference databases, (2) examining articles published since 2005 in highly relevant scientific journals and conference proceedings, and (3) reviewing additional material suggested by authors of products identified in steps 1 and 2. Our search was intentionally broad in order to identify as much relevant work as possible, much of which is professionally applied and tested within the industry of oil and gas reclamation, but which remains unpublished in scientific journals. We refined the initial list of products by removing: (1) duplicates, (2) products not written in English, (3) products that were not relevant to the arid ecosystems of western North America, (4) products that were not released as research, data products, or review articles in journals or as formal scientific reports, and (5) products with data which were not relevant to reclamation of oil and gas-affected lands, or for which the study did not present new data, findings, or syntheses relevant to reclamation of oil and gas-affected lands. We summarized each product using a consistent structure (background, objectives, methods, location, findings, and implications) and assigned standardized management topics to each. Management topics are intended to aid online searching within the bibliography and are described in more detail in the Methods Section of this report; they include what type of disturbance the product addresses (well pads, mining, pipelines), what aspect of oil and gas reclamation they pertain to (practices, standards, monitoring), what type of data are present in the product (for instance soil or vegetation recovery data), and an indication if the product were from a source other than a published, peer-reviewed outlet (such as dissertations or unpublished professional reports – these are identified as grey literature). The review process for this annotated bibliography included an initial internal colleague review of each summary, requesting input on each summary from an author of the original product, and a formal peer-review. Our initial searches resulted in 3,197 total products, of which 290 met our criteria for inclusion. “Reclamation Practices” is by far the management topic most addressed, followed by “Reclamation Monitoring,” for example, products assessing what and how monitoring methods are used to track and measure reclamation outcome. This document may be accessed at https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20231068 or from the U.S. Geological Survey Publication Warehouse ( https://pubs.usgs.gov/ ). The 1-page product summaries herein will also be used to create a bibliography at https://apps.usgs.gov/science-for-resource-managers that includes links to each original product, where available, and in which subject matter will be searchable by topic, location, and year. The studies compiled and summarized here may inform planning and management actions that seek to reclaim landscapes across the western U.S. which have been affected by oil and gas development.

Open-File Report↗

USGS2010

Aquatic assessment of the Ely Copper Mine Superfund site, Vershire, Vermont

The Ely Mine, which operated from 1821 to 1905, and its area of downstream impact constitute the Ely Copper Mine Superfund site. The site was placed on the National Priorities List in 2001. The mine comprises underground workings, foundations from historical structures, several waste-rock piles, roast beds associated with the smelting operation, and slag piles resulting from the smelting. The mine site is drained by Ely Brook, which includes several tributaries, one of which drains a series of six ponds. Ely Brook empties into Schoolhouse Brook, which flows 3.3 kilometers and joins the Ompompanoosuc River. The aquatic ecosystem at the site was assessed using a variety of approaches that investigated surface-water quality, sediment quality, and various ecological indicators of stream-ecosystem health. The degradation of surface-water quality is dominated by copper with localized effects caused by iron, aluminum, cadmium, and zinc. Chronic water-quality criteria for copper are exceeded in the surface water of four of the six ponds on the Ely Brook tributary, and all of Ely Brook and Schoolhouse Brook, and of the Ompompanoosuc River downstream of the confluence with Schoolhouse Brook. Comparison of hardness-based and Biotic Ligand Model-based water-quality criteria for copper yields similar results with respect to extent of impairment. However, the Biotic Ligand Model criteria are mostly lower than the hardness-based criteria and thus suggest a greater degree of impairment, particularly in the Ely Brook watershed, where dissolved organic carbon concentrations and pH values are lower. Surface-water toxicity testing correlates strongly with the extent of impact. Likewise, riffle-habitat benthic invertebrate richness and abundance data support these results through the stream environment. Similarly, the index of biotic integrity for the fish community in Schoolhouse Brook and the Ompompanoosuc River document degraded habitats throughout Schoolhouse Brook from Ely Brook down to the Ompompanoosuc River. The sediment environment shows similar extents of impairment also dominated by copper, although localized degradation due to chromium, nickel, lead, and zinc was documented on the basis of probable effects concentrations. In contrast, equilibrium-partitioning sediment benchmarks indicate no toxic effects would be expected in sediments at the reference sites, and uncertain toxic effects throughout Ely Brook and Schoolhouse Brook, except for the reference sites and site EB-600M. The results for site EB-600M indicate predicted toxic effects. Acute toxicity testing of in situ pore waters using Hyalella azteca indicates severe impacts in Ely Brook reaching 100 percent lethality at site EB-90M. Acute toxicity testing of in situ pore waters using Chironomus dilutus shows similar, but not as severe, toxicity. Neither set of in situ pore-water toxicity tests showed significant impairment in Schoolhouse Brook or the Ompompanoosuc River. Chronic sediment toxicity testing using Hyalella azteca indicated significant toxicity in Ely Brook, except at site EB-90M, and in Schoolhouse Brook. The low toxicity of EB-90M may be a reflection of the low lability of copper in that sediment as indicated by a low proportion of extractable copper (1.1 percent). Depositional-targeted habitat invertebrate richness and abundance data support these conclusions for the entire watershed, as do the index of biotic integrity data from the fish community. The information was used to develop an overall assessment of the impact on the aquatic system that appears to be a result of the acid rock drainage at the Ely Mine. More than 700 meters of Ely Brook, including two of the six ponds, were found to be severely impacted, on the basis of water-quality data and biological assessments. The reference location was of good quality based on the water quality and biological assessment. More than 3,125 meters of Schoolhouse Brook are also severely impacted, on the basis of water-quality data and biological assessments. The biological community begins to recover near the confluence with the Ompompanoosuc River. The evidence is less conclusive regarding the Ompompanoosuc River. The sediment data suggest that the sediments could be a source of toxicity in Ely Brook and Schoolhouse Brook. The surface-water assessment is consistent with the outcome of a surface-water toxicity testing program performed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for Ely Brook and Schoolhouse Brook and a surface-water toxicity testing program and in situ amphibian testing program for the ponds.

Vermont↗

USGS2016

Decision analysis to support development of the Glen Canyon Dam long-term experimental and management plan

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Bureau of Reclamation, National Park Service, and Argonne National Laboratory, completed a decision analysis to use in the evaluation of alternatives in the Environmental Impact Statement concerning the long-term management of water releases from Glen Canyon Dam and associated management activities. Two primary decision analysis methods, multicriteria decision analysis and the expected value of information, were used to evaluate the alternative strategies against the resource goals and to evaluate the influence of uncertainty. A total of 18 performance metrics associated with 8 out of 12 resource goals (fundamental objectives) were developed by the Bureau of Reclamation and National Park Service in partnership with subject-matter teams composed of Federal, State, tribal, and private experts. A total of 19 long-term strategies associated with 7 alternatives were developed by the Bureau of Reclamation, National Park Service, Argonne National Laboratory, U.S. Geological Survey, and Cooperating Agencies. The 19 long-term strategies were evaluated against the 18 performance metrics using a series of coupled simulation models, taking into account the effects of several important sources of uncertainty. A total of 27 Federal, State, tribal, and nongovernmental agencies were invited by the Assistant Secretary of Interior to participate in a swing-weighting exercise to understand the range of perspectives about how to place relative value on the resource goals and performance metrics; 14 of the 27 chose to participate. The results of the swing-weighting exercise were combined with the evaluation of the alternatives to complete a multicriteria decision analysis. The effects of uncertainty on the ranking of long-term strategies were evaluated through calculation of the value of information. The alternatives and their long-term strategies differed across performance metrics, producing unavoidable tradeoffs; thus, there was no long-term strategy that was dominated by another across all performance metrics. When the performance of each alternative was weighted across performance metrics, three alternatives (B, D, and G) were top-ranked depending on the set of weights proposed: Alternative B was favored by those stakeholders that placed a high value on hydropower; Alternative G was favored by those stakeholders that placed a high value on the restoration of natural processes, like beachbuilding and natural vegetation; and Alternative D was favored by the remaining stakeholders. Surprisingly, these rankings were not sensitive to the critical uncertainties that were evaluated; that is, the choice of a preferred long-term strategy was sensitive to the value-based judgment about how to place relative weight on the resource goals but was not sensitive to the uncertainties in the system dynamics that were evaluated in this analysis. The one area of uncertainty that did slightly affect the ranking of alternatives was the long-term pattern of hydrological input; because of this sensitivity, some attention to the possible effects of climate change is warranted. The results of the decision analysis are meant to serve as only one of many sources of information that can be used to evaluate the alternatives proposed in the Environmental Impact Statement. These results only focus on those resource goals for which quantitative performance metrics could be formulated and evaluated; there are other important aspects of the resource goals that also need to be considered. Not all the stakeholders who were invited to participate in the decision analysis chose to do so; thus, the Bureau of Reclamation, National Park Service, and U.S. Department of Interior may want to consider other input.

Arizona↗

USGS2022

Estimating stream temperature in the Willamette River Basin, northwestern Oregon—A regression-based approach

The alteration of thermal regimes, including increased temperatures and shifts in seasonality, is a key challenge to the health and survival of federally protected cold-water salmonids in streams of the Willamette River basin in northwestern Oregon. To better support threatened fish species, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and other water managers seek to improve the thermal regime in the Willamette River and key tributaries downstream of USACE dams by utilizing strategically timed flow releases from USACE dams. To inform flow management decisions, regression relations were developed for 12 Willamette River basin locations below USACE dams relating stream temperature with streamflow and air temperature utilizing publicly available datasets spanning 2000–18. The resulting relations provide simple tools to investigate stream temperature responses to changes in streamflow and climatic conditions in the Willamette River system. Regression relations on the Willamette River and key tributaries show that, at locations sufficiently distant from the direct temperature influence of upstream dam releases, air temperature and streamflow are reasonable proxies to predict the 7-day average of the daily mean (7dADMean) and 7-day average of the daily maximum (7dADMax) water temperature with errors generally ≤1 degrees Celsius (°C). To account for seasonal variations in the relation between air temperature, streamflow, and stream temperature, a transition-smoothed, seasonal regression approach was used. Stream temperature is inversely correlated with streamflow in all seasons except “winter” (January–March), when it is relatively independent. Stream temperature is positively correlated with air temperature in all seasons, but the slope decreases at very low or very high air temperatures. Generally, fit is best for seasonal models “winter” (January–March), “spring” (April–May), “summer” (June–August), and “early autumn” (September–October). Error in “autumn” (November–December) is larger, probably due to variation in the onset timing of winter storms. Simulated results from a climatological analysis of predicted stream temperature suggest that, excluding extremes and accounting for some seasonal variability, the 7dADMean and 7dADMax stream temperature sensitivity to air temperature and streamflow varies by location on the river. To investigate the potential range of stream temperature variability based on historical air temperature and streamflow conditions, stream temperature predictions were calculated using synthetic time series comprised of daily temperature values representing the 0.10, 0.33, 0.50, 0.67, and 0.90 quantile of air temperature and streamflow from 1954 (the year meaningful streamflow augmentation began) to 2018. Results show that from a “very hot” (0.90 quantile) and “very dry” (0.10 quantile) year to a “very cool” (0.10 quantile) and “very wet” (0.90; all quantiles from 1954 to 2018) year, the stream temperature sensitivity to air temperature and streamflow is about 3 °C at Harrisburg (river mile 161.0) and increases to about 5 °C at Keizer (river mile 82.2). While the number of days exceeding regulatory criteria are fewer in cooler, wetter years than in warmer, dryer years, the models suggest that the Willamette River will likely continue to exceed the State of Oregon maximum water-temperature criterion of 18 °C for sustained periods from late spring to early autumn and that the flow management practices evaluated in this study, while effective at influencing stream temperature, likely cannot prevent many or all such exceedances. As modeled for 2018, a representative very hot year with normal to below-normal streamflow, stream temperature sensitivity to changes in streamflow of ±100 to ±1000 cubic feet per second produced mean monthly temperature changes from 0.0 to 1.4 °C at Keizer, Albany, and Harrisburg during summer. For a specified change in flow, temperature sensitivity is greater at upstream locations where streamflow is less than that at downstream locations because the change in streamflow is a greater percentage of total streamflow at upstream locations. Similarly, temperature response to a set change in flow is greater in the summer and early autumn low-flow season than in spring when flows are higher. The regression models developed in this study thus indicate that flow management is likely to have a greater effect on stream temperature at upstream locations (such as Harrisburg or Albany) and during the low-flow season than at downstream locations (such as Keizer) or during periods of higher streamflow.

Oregon↗

USGS2018

Analysis of groundwater response to tidal fluctuations, Operable Unit 2, Area 8, Naval Base Kitsap, Keyport, Washington

Operable Unit 2, Area 8, at Naval Base Kitsap, Keyport is the site of a former chrome-plating facility that released metals (primarily chromium and cadmium), chlorinated volatile organic compounds, and petroleum compounds into the local environment. To ensure long-term protectiveness, as stipulated in the Fourth Five-Year Review for the site, Naval Facilities Engineering Command Northwest collaborated with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the Washington State Department of Ecology, and the Suquamish Tribe, to collect data to monitor the contamination left in place and to ensure the site does not pose a risk to human health or the environment. To support these efforts, refined information was needed on the interaction of fresh groundwater with seawater in response to the up-to 13-ft tidal fluctuations at this nearshore site adjacent to Port Orchard Bay. The information was analyzed to meet the primary objective of this investigation, which was to determine the optimal time during the semi-diurnal and the neap-spring tidal cycles to sample groundwater for freshwater contaminants in Area 8 monitoring wells. Groundwater levels and specific conductance in five monitoring wells, along with marine water-levels (tidal levels) in Port Orchard Bay, were monitored every 15 minutes during a 3-week duration to determine how nearshore groundwater responds to tidal forcing. Time series data were collected from October 24, 2017, to November 16, 2017, a period that included neap and spring tides. Vertical profiles of specific conductance were also measured once in the screened interval of each well prior to instrument deployment to determine if a freshwater/saltwater interface was present in the well during that particular time. The vertical profiles of specific conductance were measured only one time during an ebbing tide at approximately the top, middle, and bottom of the saturated thickness within the screened interval of each well. The landward-most well, MW8-8, was completely freshwater, while one of the most seaward wells, MW8-9, was completely saline. A distinct saltwater interface was measured in the three other shallow wells (MW8-11, MW8-12, and MW8-14), with the topmost groundwater occurring fresh underlain by higher conductivity water. Lag times between minimum spring-tide level and minimum groundwater levels in wells ranged from about 2 to 4.5 hours in the less-than 20-ft deep wells screened across the water table, and was about 7 hours for the single 48-ft deep well screened below the water table. Those lag times were surprisingly long considering the wells are all located within 200-ft of the shoreline and the local geology is largely coarse-grained glacial outwash deposits. Various manmade subsurface features, such as slurry walls and backfilled excavations, likely influence and confuse the connectivity between seawater and groundwater. The specific-conductance time-series data showed clear evidence of substantial saltwater intrusion into the screened intervals of most shallow wells. Unexpectedly, the intrusion was associated with the neap part of the tidal cycle around November 13–16, when relatively low barometric pressure and high southerly winds led to the highest high and low tides measured during the monitoring period. The data consistently indicated that the groundwater had the lowest specific conductance (was least mixed with seawater) during the prior neap tides around October 30, the same period when the shallow groundwater levels were lowest. Although the specific conductance response is somewhat different between wells, the data do suggest that it is the heights of the actual high-high and low-low tides, regardless of whether or not they occur during the neap or spring part of the cycle, that allows seawater intrusion into the nearshore aquifer at Area 8. With all the data taken into consideration, the optimal time for sampling the shallow monitoring wells at Area 8 would be centered on a 2–5-hour period following the predicted low-low tide during neap tide, with due consideration of local atmospheric pressure and wind conditions that have the potential to generate tides that can be substantially higher than those predicted from lunar-solar tidal forces. The optimal time for sampling the deeper monitoring wells at Area 8 would be during the 6–8-hour period following a predicted low-low tide, also during the neap tide part of the tidal cycle. The specific time window to sample each well following a low tide can be found in table 5. Those periods are when groundwater in the wells is most fresh and least diluted by seawater intrusion. In addition to timing, consideration should be given to collecting undisturbed samples from the top of the screened interval (or top of the water table if below the top of the interval) to best characterize contaminant concentrations in freshwater. A downhole conductivity probe could be used to identify the saltwater interface, above which would be the ideal depth for sampling.

Washington↗

USGS1914

The Transportation of Debris by Running Water

Scope.-The finer debris transported by a stream is borne in suspension. The coarser is swept along the channel bed. The suspended load is readily sampled and estimated, and much is known as to its quantity. The bed load is inaccessible and we are without definite information as to its amount. The primary purpose of the investigation was to learn the laws which control the movement of bed load, and especially to determine how the quantity of load is related to the stream's slope and discharge and to the degree of comminution of the debris. Method.-To this end a laboratory was equipped at Berkeley, Cal., and experiments were performed in which each of the three conditions mentioned was separately varied and the resulting variations of load were observed and measured. Sand and gravel were sorted by sieves into grades of uniform size. Determinate discharges were used. In each experiment a specific load was fed to a stream of specific width and discharge, and measurement was made of the slope to which the stream automatically adjusted its bed so as to enable the current to transport the load. The slope factor.-For each combination of discharge, width, and grade of debris there is a slope, called competent slope, which limits transportation. With lower slopes there is no load, or the stream has no capacity for load. With higher slopes capacity exists; and increase of slope gives increase of capacity. The value of capacity is approximately proportional to a power of the excess of slope above competent slope. If S equal the stream's slope and sigma equal competent slope, then the stream's capacity varies as (S - sigma)n. This is not a deductive, but an empiric law. The exponent n has not a fixed value, but an indefinite series of values depending on conditions. Its range of values in the experience of the laboratory is from 0.93 to 2.37, the values being greater as the discharges are smaller or the debris is coarser. The discharge factor.-For each combination of width, slope, and grade of debris there is a competent discharge, k. Calling the stream's discharge Q, the stream's capacity varies as (Q - k)o. The observed range of values for o is from 0.81 to 1.24, the values being greater as the slopes are smaller or the debris is coarser. Under like conditions o is less than n; or, in other words, capacity is less sensitive to change3 of discharge than to changes of slope. The fineness factor.-For each combination of width, slope, and discharge there is a limiting fineness of debris below which no transportation takes place. Calling fineness (or degree of comminution) F and competent fineness o, the stream's capacity varies with (F - o)p. The observed range of values for p is from 0.50 to 0.62, the values being greater as slopes and discharges are smaller. Capacity is less sensitive to changes in fineness of debris than to changes in discharge or slope. The form factor.-Most of the experiments were with straight channels. A few with crooked channels yielded nearly the same estimates of capacity. The ratio of depth to width is a more important factor. For any combination of slope, discharge, and fineness it is possible to reduce capacity to zero by making the stream very wide and shallow or very narrow and deep. Between these extremes is a particular ratio of depth to width, p, corresponding to a maximum capacity. The values of p range, under laboratory conditions, from 0.5 to 0.04, being greater as slope, discharge, and fineness are less. Velocity.-The velocity which determines capacity for bed load is that near the stream's bed, but attempts to measure bed velocity were not successful. Mean velocity was measured instead. To make a definite comparison between capacity and mean velocity it is necessary to postulate constancy in some accessory condition. If slope be the constant, in which case velocity changes with discharge, capacity varies on the average with the 3.2 power of velocity. If discharge be the constant, in w

Professional Paper↗