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USGS2010

Radionuclides, trace elements, and radium residence in phosphogypsum of Jordan

Voluminous stockpiles of phosphogypsum (PG) generated during the wet process production of phosphoric acid are stored at many sites around the world and pose problems for their safe storage, disposal, or utilization. A major concern is the elevated concentration of long-lived 226Ra (half-life = 1,600 years) inherited from the processed phosphate rock. Knowledge of the abundance and mode-of-occurrence of radium (Ra) in PG is critical for accurate prediction of Ra leachability and radon (Rn) emanation, and for prediction of radiation-exposure pathways to workers and to the public. The mean (??SD) of 226Ra concentrations in ten samples of Jordan PG is 601 ?? 98 Bq/kg, which falls near the midrange of values reported for PG samples collected worldwide. Jordan PG generally shows no analytically significant enrichment (< 10%) of 226Ra in the finer (< 53 ??m) grain size fraction. Phosphogypsum samples collected from two industrial sites with different sources of phosphate rock feedstock show consistent differences in concentration of 226Ra and rare earth elements, and also consistent trends of enrichment in these elements with increasing age of PG. Water-insoluble residues from Jordan PG constitute <10% of PG mass but contain 30-65% of the 226Ra. 226Ra correlates closely with Ba in the water-insoluble residues. Uniformly tiny (< 10 ??m) grains of barite (barium sulfate) observed with scanning electron microscopy have crystal morphologies that indicate their formation during the wet process. Barite is a well-documented and efficient scavenger of Ra from solution and is also very insoluble in water and mineral acids. Radium-bearing barite in PG influences the environmental mobility of radium and the radiation-exposure pathways near PG stockpiles. ?? 2010 US Government.

Environmental Geochemistry and Health↗

USGS2010

Design of Cycle 3 of the National Water-Quality Assessment Program, 2013-2022: Part 1: Framework of Water-Quality Issues and Potential Approaches

In 1991, the U.S. Congress established the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program to develop long-term, nationally consistent information on the quality of the Nation's streams and groundwater. Congress recognized the critical need for this information to support scientifically sound management, regulatory, and policy decisions concerning the increasingly stressed water resources of the Nation. The long-term goals of NAWQA are to: (1) assess the status of water-quality conditions in the United States, (2) evaluate long-term trends in water-quality conditions, and (3) link status and trends with an understanding of the natural and human factors that affect water quality. These goals are national in scale, include both surface water and groundwater, and include consideration of water quality in relation to both human uses and aquatic ecosystems. Since 1991, NAWQA assessments and findings have fostered and supported major improvements in the availability and use of unbiased scientific information for decisionmaking, resource management, and planning at all levels of government. These improvements have enabled agencies and stakeholders to cost-effectively address a wide range of water-quality issues related to natural and human influences on the quality of water and potential effects on aquatic ecosystems and human health (http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/xrel.pdf). NAWQA, like all USGS programs, provides policy relevant information that serves as a scientific basis for decisionmaking related to resource management, protection, and restoration. The information is freely available to all levels of government, nongovernmental organizations, industry, academia, and the public, and is readily accessible on the NAWQA Web site and other diverse formats to serve the needs of the water-resource community at different technical levels. Water-quality conditions in streams and groundwater are described in more than 1,700 publications (available online at http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/bib/), and are documented by more than 14 million data records representing about 7,600 stream sites, 8,100 wells, and 2,000 water-quality and ecological constituents that are available from the NAWQA data warehouse (http://infotrek.er.usgs.gov/traverse/f?p=NAWQA:HOME:0). The Program promotes collaboration and liaison with government officials, resource managers, industry representatives, and other stakeholders to increase the utility and relevance of NAWQA science to decisionmakers. As part of this effort, NAWQA supports integration of data from other organizations into NAWQA assessments, where appropriate and cost-effective, so that more comprehensive findings are available across geographic and temporal scales.

Open-File Report↗

USGS2011

Groundwater quality in the Santa Clara River Valley, California

The Santa Clara River Valley (SCRV) study unit is located in Los Angeles and Ventura Counties, California, and is bounded by the Santa Monica, San Gabriel, Topatopa, and Santa Ynez Mountains, and the Pacific Ocean. The 460-square-mile study unit includes eight groundwater basins: Ojai Valley, Upper Ojai Valley, Ventura River Valley, Santa Clara River Valley, Pleasant Valley, Arroyo Santa Rosa Valley, Las Posas Valley, and Simi Valley (California Department of Water Resources, 2003; Montrella and Belitz, 2009). The SCRV study unit has hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters. Average annual rainfall ranges from 12 to 28 inches. The study unit is drained by the Ventura and Santa Clara Rivers, and Calleguas Creek. The primary aquifer system in the Ventura River Valley, Ojai Valley, Upper Ojai Valley, and Simi Valley basins is largely unconfined alluvium. The primary aquifer system in the remaining groundwater basins mainly consists of unconfined sands and gravels in the upper portion and partially confined marine and nonmarine deposits in the lower portion. The primary aquifer system in the SCRV study unit is defined as those parts of the aquifers corresponding to the perforated intervals of wells listed in the California Department of Public Health (CDPH) database. Public-supply wells typically are completed in the primary aquifer system to depths of 200 to 1,100 feet below land surface (bls). The wells contain solid casing reaching from the land surface to a depth of about 60-700 feet, and are perforated below the solid casing to allow water into the well. Water quality in the primary aquifer system may differ from the water in the shallower and deeper parts of the aquifer. Land use in the study unit is approximately 40 percent (%) natural (primarily shrubs, grassland, and wetlands), 37% agricultural, and 23% urban. The primary crops are citrus, avocados, alfalfa, pasture, strawberries, and dry beans. The largest urban areas in the study unit are the cities of Ventura, Oxnard, Camarillo, Simi Valley, Newhall, and Santa Clarita. Currently, groundwater pumping for agricultural use accounts for the greatest amount of discharge from the aquifer system in the SCRV study unit, followed by municipal use. Recharge to the groundwater system is through stream-channel infiltration from the three main river systems and by direct infiltration of precipitation and irrigation. Recharge facilities in the Oxnard forebay play an important role in recharging the local aquifer systems.

Fact Sheet↗

USGS1994

A summary of pesticides in ground-water data collected by government agencies in Indiana, December 1985 to April 1991

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Indiana Department of Environmental Management, computerized the available government agency data on the occurrence of pesticides and pesticide metabolites in Indiana ground water. Results of analyses of 725 samples were summarized for the period December 1985 through April 1991. The data had been collected during 6 statewide surveys and 15 localized studies by the Indiana Department of Environmental Management, the Indiana Department of Natural Resources, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and the U.S. Geological Survey. Ground-water samples were collected from 521 sites in 81 of 92 Indiana counties, including 179 public-supply wells, 304 domestic-supply wells, 36 observation wells, and 2 springs; 41 percent of all sites were sampled more than once. Thirty wells were sampled in response to alleged groundwater contamination with pesticides. Of 87 pesticides and 10 metabolites analyzed, 18 pesticides and 5 metabolites were detected in 51 samples of ground water from 22 domestic wells, 8 community-system wells, 5 observation wells, 4 non-community-system wells, and 2 springs. Detections associated with complaints of ground-water contamination from pesticide storage, handling, or application occurred at five domestic wells. Three-fourths of all the pesticide detections were in water from wells completed in unconsolidated materials to a depth of less than 100 feet, but well depths ranged from 12 to 260 feet. The highest frequency of occurrence was observed for the most commonly used herbicides alachlor, atrazine and two atrazine metabolites (de-ethylatrazine and de-isopropylatrazine); dicamba; 2,4-D; and metolachlor. Also reported in Indiana ground water were eight insecticides whose registration had been cancelled by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency prior to their detection in Indiana EDB, DBCP, aldrin, endrin, dieldrin, lindane, heptachlor, and DOT. More than 1 pesticide was present in 16 of the 51 samples that had detections, for a total of 90 individual pesticide detections. Concentrations of the detected pesticides ranged from 0.04 to 49 micrograms per liter, and two-thirds of the detected concentrations were less than 1 microgram per liter. In about 29 percent of all detections, the concentration of 9 pesticides alachlor, aldrin, atrazine, dieldrin, EDB, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, simazine, and terbufos exceeded either the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Maximum Contaminant Level or adult lifetime Health Advisory.

Indiana↗

USGS2007

Recent results on the spatiotemporal modelling and comparative analysis of Black Death and bubonic plague epidemics

Background: This work demonstrates the importance of spatiotemporal stochastic modelling in constructing maps of major epidemics from fragmentary information, assessing population impacts, searching for possible etiologies, and performing comparative analysis of epidemics. Methods: Based on the theory previously published by the authors and incorporating new knowledge bases, informative maps of the composite space-time distributions were generated for important characteristics of two major epidemics: Black Death (14th century Western Europe) and bubonic plague (19th-20th century Indian subcontinent). Results: The comparative spatiotemporal analysis of the epidemics led to a number of interesting findings: (1) the two epidemics exhibited certain differences in their spatiotemporal characteristics (correlation structures, trends, occurrence patterns and propagation speeds) that need to be explained by means of an interdisciplinary effort; (2) geographical epidemic indicators confirmed in a rigorous quantitative manner the partial findings of isolated reports and time series that Black Death mortality was two orders of magnitude higher than that of bubonic plague; (3) modern bubonic plague is a rural disease hitting harder the small villages in the countryside whereas Black Death was a devastating epidemic that indiscriminately attacked large urban centres and the countryside, and while the epidemic in India lasted uninterruptedly for five decades, in Western Europe it lasted three and a half years; (4) the epidemics had reverse areal extension features in response to annual seasonal variations. Temperature increase at the end of winter led to an expansion of infected geographical area for Black Death and a reduction for bubonic plague, reaching a climax at the end of spring when the infected area in Western Europe was always larger than in India. Conversely, without exception, the infected area during winter was larger for the Indian bubonic plague; (5) during the Indian epidemic, the disease disappeared and reappeared several times at most locations; in Western Europe, once the disease entered a place, it lasted a time proportional to the population and then disappeared for several years (this on-and-off situation lasted more than three centuries); and (6) on average, Black Death moved much faster than bubonic plague to reach virgin territories, despite the fact that India is only slightly larger in area than Western Europe and had a railroad network almost instantly moving infected rats, fleas, and people from one end of the subcontinent to the other. Conclusions: These findings throw new light on the spatiotemporal characteristics of the epidemics and need to be taken into consideration in the scientific discussion concerning the two devastating diseases and the lessons learned from them. ?? 2007 The Royal Institute of Public Health.

Public Health↗

USGS1975

Occurrence of pesticide residues in four streams draining different land-use areas in Pennsylvania

Samples of water, bed material, fish, and soil were collected in four small drainage basins in Pennsylvania in 1969-71 and analyzed to determine the concentrations of chlorinated-hydrocarbon insecticides. Water samples only were also analyzed for phenoxy-acid herbicides. Each basin studied represents a predominant land-use classification—forested, general farming, residential, and orchard farming. All water and fish samples showed pesticide concentrations less than the U.S. Public Health Service's (1969) recommended maximum permissible concentration. However, no fish were found in the orchard area stream at the time collection was attempted. DOT or one of its metabolites was the most frequently occurring insecticide and was detected in all media sampled except the forestedarea soil. The highest observed combined concentration of DOT and its metabolites in storm-runoff samples was 11.4 micrograms per litre in a sample collected from the residential area stream, but the median was higher (0.12 microgram per litre) in the orchard area than in the residential area (0.02 microgram per litre). A sample of the top 0.5 inch (13 millimetres) of orchard soil contained 40,000 micrograms per kilogram of DOT and its metabolites, even though DOT had not been used in the orchards for several years prior to this study. Maximum concentrations detected in other orchard media are 330 micrograms per kilogram in bed material and 3.45 micrograms per litre in storm runoff. Dieldrin was the second most frequently occurring insecticide. Other insecticides detected were chlordane, heptachlor epoxide, lindane, and a trace of aldrin in one fish sample. At least one of the following herbicides—2,4-D, silvex, or 2,4,5-T—was detected in each stream.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS2006

Strength in Numbers: Describing the Flooded Area of Isolated Wetlands

Thousands of isolated, freshwater wetlands are scattered across the karst1 landscape of central Florida. Most are small (less than 15 acres), shallow, marsh and cypress wetlands that flood and dry seasonally. Wetland health is threatened when wetland flooding patterns are altered either by human activities, such as land-use change and ground-water pumping, or by changes in climate. Yet the small sizes and vast numbers of isolated wetlands in Florida challenge our efforts to characterize them collectively as a statewide water resource. In the northern Tampa Bay area of west-central Florida alone, water levels are measured monthly in more than 400 wetlands by the Southwest Florida Water Management Distirct (SWFWMD). Many wetlands have over a decade of measurements. The usefulness of long-term monitoring of wetland water levels would greatly increase if it described not just the depth of water at a point in the wetland, but also the amount of the total wetland area that was flooded. Water levels can be used to estimate the flooded area of a wetland if the elevation contours of the wetland bottom are determined by bathymetric mapping. Despite the recognized importance of the flooded area to wetland vegetation, bathymetric maps are not available to describe the flooded areas of even a representative number of Florida's isolated wetlands. Information on the bathymetry of isolated wetlands is rare because it is labor intensive to collect the land-surface elevation data needed to create the maps. Five marshes and five cypress wetlands were studied by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) during 2000 to 2004 as part of a large interdisciplinary study of isolated wetlands in central Florida. The wetlands are located either in municipal well fields or on publicly owned lands (fig. 1). The 10 wetlands share similar geology and climate, but differ in their ground-water settings. All have historical water-level data and multiple vegetation surveys. A comprehensive report by Haag and others (2005) documents bathymetric mapping approaches, the frequency of flooding in different areas of the wetlands, and the relation between flooding and vegetation in these wetlands. This fact sheet describes bathymetric mapping approaches and partial results from two natural marshes (Hillsborough River State Park Marsh, and Green Swamp Marsh) and one impaired marsh (W-29 Marsh) that is located on a municipal well field and is affected by ground-water withdrawals. (fig. 1).

Fact Sheet↗

USGS2008

Organic compounds in Potomac River water used for public supply near Washington, D.C., 2003-05

Organic compounds studied in this U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) assessment generally are man-made, including, in part, pesticides, solvents, gasoline hydrocarbons, personal care and domestic-use products, and refrigerants and propellants. A total of 85 of 277 compounds were detected at least once among the 25 samples collected approximately monthly during 2003-05 at the intake of the Washington Aqueduct, one of several community water systems on the Potomac River upstream from Washington, D.C. The diversity of compounds detected indicate a variety of different sources and uses (including wastewater discharge, industrial, agricultural, domestic, and others) and different pathways (including treated wastewater outfalls located upstream, overland runoff, and ground-water discharge) to drinking-water supplies. Seven compounds were detected year-round in source-water intake samples, including selected herbicide compounds commonly used in the Potomac River Basin and in other agricultural areas across the United States. Two-thirds of the 26 compounds detected most commonly in source water (in at least 20 percent of the samples) also were detected most commonly in finished water (after treatment but prior to distribution). Concentrations for all detected compounds in source and finished water generally were less than 0.1 microgram per liter and always less than human-health benchmarks, which are available for about one-half of the detected compounds. On the basis of this screening-level assessment, adverse effects to human health are expected to be negligible (subject to limitations of available human-health benchmarks).

Maryland, Virginia↗

USGS1998

How do we determine when the beaches are safe for swimming?

The use of Lake Erie and other public waters for swimming is a valuable recreational resource for the people of Ohio and elsewhere in the United States. Water-resource managers and the scientific community have recognized the need for rapid methods to determine the quality of these recreational waters to adequately protect public health. Fecal-indicator bacteria, such as Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) and fecal coliforms, are used to determine the risk of contracting waterborne disease from fecal-contaminated recreational waters. Fecal-indicator bacteria are not necessarily pathogens ( disease-causing organisms), but their presence can indicate the possible presence of pathogens. Although improvements to existing sewage treatment systems are continuously being made in many areas, fecal contamination is still a possibility. Therefore, findings from carefully designed monitoring programs are needed to inform the public on the risk of swimming in fecal-contaminated waters. Current methods to assess the concentrations of fecal indicators-that is, the number of bacteria in a certain volume of water-take at least 24 hours to complete. Due to the long time frame, some scientists have suggested using other water-quality or environmental surrogates (substitutes) to determine these concentrations. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is working to address this concern in a study conducted at three Lake Erie beaches in the Cleveland, Ohio, area. The study has shown that turbidity (the amount of light scattered or absorbed by suspended materials in a water sample), rainfall, and wave height could be used in a statistical model to predict E. coli concentrations.

Ohio↗

USGS1975

A reconnaissance of hydrogeologic conditions in Lehigh Acres and adjacent areas of Lee County, Florida

Lehigh Acres, a residential community with a population of about 13,500 and comprising an area of about 94 square miles (243 square kilometres) in the eastern part of Lee County, has been under development since 1954. Prior to development the area was poorly drained. By 1974, more than 150 miles (241 kilometres) of drainageways had been constructed to drain the area. The water-bearing formations underlying Lehigh Acres include the water-table, sandstone, lower Hawthorn, and Suwannee aquifers. The water-table aquifer is usually not more than 30 feet (9 metres) thick; it contains water of relatively good quality, except for iron and color. Water levels in this aquifer probably have been affected by construction of drainage canals. The sandstone aquifer, used extensively throughout the area as a source of water supply usually contains water of good quality although the water is hard and in places may contain concentrations of dissolved solids and iron which exceed the recommended limits of the U.S. Public Health Service and the State of Florida for drinking water. The lower Hawthorn and Suwannee aquifers, usually encountered at depths between 440 and 850 feet (135 and 262 metres), contains water with relatively high concentrations of sodium, sulfate, chloride, and dissolved solids. Three streams, the Orange River, Hickey Creek, and Bedman Creek and the canals connected to them, provide drainage of the area. Except for the Orange River, where the water is of good chemical quality, little is known of the water quality. Similarly, little information is available on stream discharge except for the Orange River where the average annual discharge was 41.1 cubic feet per second (11.6 cubic metres per second) between 1935-46. Most lakes and ponds in Lehigh Acres are hydraulically connected to the water-table aquifer such that factors which affect one also affect the other. Theoretical drawdown curves indicate that the drainage canals may affect ground-water levels to a distance of 6,000 feet (1,800 metres) under certain conditions. Leeland Lake, the only known sinkhole lake in Lee County, is about 208 feet (64 metres) deep and contains water more nearly similar to the sandstone aquifer, although the lake may by hydraulically connected to both the water-table and sandstone aquifers.

Florida↗

USGS1974

Availability of ground water in the Blackstone River area Rhode Island and Massachusetts

The Blackstone River study area covers 83 square miles of northern Rhode Island and 5 square miles of adjacent Massachusetts (fig. 1). It includes parts of the Blackstone, Moshassuck, and Tenmile River basins, and a coastal area that drains to the brackish Seekonk and Providence Rivers. In Rhode Island, all or parts of the suburban towns of Cumberland, Lincoln, North Smithfield, and Smithfield and all or parts of the cities of Central Falls, East Povidence, Pawtucket, Providence, and Woonsocket are within the study area. Also included are parts of the towns Attleboro and North Attleborough in Massachusetts. In 1970, total population was about 240,000, which was equivalent to about one-fourth of the total population of Rhode Island. Fresh water usage in 1970 by public-supply systems and self-supplied industry was about 33 mgd (million gallons per day), which was equal to 22 percent of total fresh water use in Rhode Island for all purposes except generation of electric power (fig. 2). Anticipated increases in population and per capita water requirements are likely to cause the demand for water to more than double within the next 50 years. A significant part of this demand can be met from wells that tap the principal streams. This aquifer yielded an average of 10 mgd in 1970 and is capable of sustaining a much higher yield. The primary objectives of the study were to determine and map the saturated thickness and transmissivity of the stratified-drift aquifer and to assess the potential sustained yield of those parts of the aquifer favorable for large-scale development of water. A secondary objective was to describe ground-water quality and to evaluate the impact of induced infiltration of polluted stream water on the quality of native ground water. This report is based on analysis of drillers' records of more than 700 wells and borings which include 462 lithologic logs; 35 specific-capacity determinations; 12 aquifer tests, including detailed tests at two sites to determine streambed infiltration rates; chemical analyses of 92 ground-water and 15 stream-water samples; and geologic mapping. Selected base data are published in a separate (Johnston and Dickerman, in press). The authors are indebted to well drillers, especially American Drilling and Boring Company, R.E. Chapman Company, and Layne New England Company, for making their records available; to the water departments of the towns of Cumberland and Lincoln, for allowing aquifer tests of their well fields; to the Rhode Island Department of Health, for providing data on water quality and use; and to many other federal, state, and municipal agencies, companies, and individuals who supplied information. Their contributions are gratefully acknowledged.

Massachusetts;Rhode Island↗

USGS2018

Simulated hydrologic response to climate change during the 21st century in New Hampshire

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services and the Department of Health and Human Services, has developed a hydrologic model to assess the effects of short- and long-term climate change on hydrology in New Hampshire. This report documents the model and datasets developed by using the model to predict how climate change will affect the hydrologic cycle and provide data that can be used by State and local agencies to identify locations that are vulnerable to the effects of climate change in areas across New Hampshire. Future hydrologic projections were developed from the output of five general circulation models for two future climate scenarios. The scenarios are based on projected future greenhouse gas emissions and estimates of land-use and land-cover change within a projected global economic framework. An evaluation of the possible effect of projected future temperature on modeling of evapotranspiration is summarized to address concerns regarding the implications of the future climate on model parameters that are based on climate variables. The results of the model simulations are hydrologic projections indicating increasing streamflow across the State with large increases in streamflow during winter and early spring and general decreases during late spring and summer. Wide spatial variability in changes to groundwater recharge is projected, with general decreases in the Connecticut River Valley and at high elevations in the northern part of the State and general increases in coastal and lowland areas of the State. In general, total winter snowfall is projected to decrease across the State, but there is a possibility of increasing snow in some locations, particularly during November, February, and March. The simulated future changes in recharge and snowfall vary by watershed across the State. This means that each area of the State could experience very different changes, depending on topography or other factors. Therefore, planning for infrastructure and public safety needs to be flexible in order to address the range of possible outcomes indicated by the various model simulations. The absolute magnitude and timing of the daily streamflows, especially the larger floods, are not considered to be reliably simulated compared to changes in frequency and duration of daily streamflows and changes in accumulated monthly and seasonal streamflow volumes. Simulated current and future streamflow, groundwater recharge, and snowfall datasets include simulated data derived from the five general circulation models used in this study for a current reference time period and two future time periods. Average monthly streamflow time series datasets are provided for 27 streamgages in New Hampshire. Fourteen of the 27 streamgages associated with daily streamflow time series showed a good calibration. Average monthly groundwater recharge and snowfall time series for the same reference time period and two future time periods are also provided for each of the 467 hydrologic response units that compose the model.

New Hampshire↗

USGS1970

An appraisal of ground water for irrigation in the Wadena area, central Minnesota

The Wadena area is part of a large sandy plain in central Minnesota whose soils have low water-holding capacity. Drought conditions which adversely affect plant growth frequently occur in the summer when moisture is most needed. To reduce the risk of crop failure in the area supplemental irrigation is on the increase. This study was made to evaluate the ground-water resources of the area and to determine possible effects of development on them. About half the area's approximately 102,000 acres is considered irrigable at the present time. In 1967, about 1,100 acres were under irrigation. Outwash sand and gravel, which forms the water-table aquifer, is the main source of water presently known. Saturated thickness ranges from 0 to 70 feet and averages about 36 feet. Sandy till underlies the outwash. Within the till are sand and gravel lenses whose distribution and water-yielding characteristics were not determined. Average annual precipitation at the U.S. Weather Bureau station in Wadena from 1934 to 1967 was 26.4 inches, of which about 22.5 inches was lost by evapotranspiration, and the balance of 3.9 inches was surface runoff. Even in wet years, evapotranspiration during the .summer months exceeds precipitation, and a moisture deficiency for optimum plant growth occurs. In 1967, about 8 inches of the total precipitation of 19.3 inches reached the water table. Recharge to the water table in 1967 was about 70,000 acre-feet. Result of field aquifer (pumping) tests were used to estimate transmissivity values at test-hole sites. Information gained by auger test drilling was the basis for estimating transmissivity values elsewhere. Transmissivity of the watertable aquifer in most of the Wadena area ranges from 15,000 to 120,000 gallons per day per foot. A map was prepared to show the maximum yield, in gallons per minute, which might be obtained from individual wells completed in the water-table aquifer. The map indicates that in about 60 percent of the area, individual wells can be pumped at rates greater than 300 gallons per minute for a 30-day period if drawdown in the pumped well is two-thirds the saturated thickness after correction for dewatering. Quality of both ground and surface waters is such that they are well suited for irrigation. Locally, nitrate concentrations in ground water, in excess of the U.S. Public Health Service's drinking water standards, might be related to a local source of organic pollution or to the increased use of fertilizers which accompanies irrigation. An electric analog model of the water-table aquifer in the Wadena area was built and used to analyze possible effects of ground-water development of the hydrologic system. The model was designed to .simulate existing hydrologic conditions and used to predict changes in the system which might result from development. The withdrawal of large quantities of ground water would lower the water table, thereby reducing evapotranspiration losses and making more water available for beneficial use. Additional water would be salvaged when normal ground-water discharge to streams is intercepted by pumping from wells. Analyses were made to determine effects of development on ground-water levels under different development schemes both after a single irrigation season and after 5 and 20 successive years of irrigation. Where development is concentrated, some interference between wells can be expected. Although water levels recover rapidly when pumps are shut off, recovery will not be complete prior to the next irrigation season in heavily developed areas. After several years of watertable lowering, yields from wells will decrease because of deceased saturated thickness, unless climatic changes result in abnormally high amounts of recharge.

Minnesota↗

USGS2022

Characterization of and relations among precipitation, streamflow, suspended-sediment, and water-quality data at the U.S. Army Garrison Fort Carson and Piñon Canyon Maneuver Site, Colorado, water years 2016–18

Frequent and prolonged military training maneuvers are an intensive type of land use that may disturb land cover, compact soils, and have lasting effects on adjacent stream hydrology and ecosystems. To better understand the potential effect of military training on hydrologic and environmental processes, the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the U.S. Army established hydrologic and water-quality data-collection networks at the U.S. Army Garrison Fort Carson (AGFC) in 1978 and at the Piñon Canyon Maneuver Site (PCMS) in 1982. The purpose of this report is to present precipitation, streamflow, suspended-sediment, and water-quality data collected by the U.S. Geological Survey at the AGFC and PCMS for water years (WYs) 2016–18 and to evaluate those data in relation to long-term data from the AGFC and PCMS. In WYs 2016–18, the U.S. Geological Survey monitored 26 sites on the AGFC and 17 sites on the PCMS for precipitation amount, streamflow, suspended sediment, and (or) water quality. On the AGFC, total annual precipitation in WYs 2016–18 was larger than the long-term mean for all 3 years at Rod and Gun Meteorologic Station at Fort Carson, CO (Rod and Gun). There were statistically significant upward trends in annual precipitation at Rod and Gun and Young Hollow Meteorologic Station at Fort Carson, CO (Young Hollow) with slopes of 1.25 and 0.66 inches per year (in/yr), respectively. The precipitation totals for WY 2017 were either the largest on record or in the top three for both sites and at Sullivan Park Meteorologic Station at Fort Carson, CO. On the PCMS, total annual precipitation was larger than the long-term mean in WYs 2016–18 at Brown Sheep Camp Meteorologic Station near Tyrone, CO; CIG Pipeline South Meteorologic Station near Simpson, CO; Bear Springs Hills Meteorologic Station near Houghton, CO (Bear Springs); and Upper Red Rock Canyon Meteorologic Station near Houghton, CO (Upper Red Rock). There were statistically significant upward trends in precipitation at Bear Springs and Upper Red Rock with slopes of 0.16 and 0.19 in/yr, respectively. The precipitation totals for WY 2017 were the largest on record for all sites except for Upper Bent Canyon Meteorological Station near Delhi, CO. Streamflow was calculated at 18 sites on the AGFC and 7 sites on the PCMS in at least 1 of WYs 2016–18. At AGFC, mean annual (or seasonal) streamflow in WYs 2016–18 was less than the long-term mean at 7 sites and greater than the long-term mean at 3 sites. There were statistically significant downward trends in mean annual or seasonal streamflow at Womack Ditch from Little Fountain Creek near Fort Carson, CO, and Ripley Ditch from Little Fountain Creek at Fort Carson, CO, with slopes of −0.036 and −0.028 cubic feet per second per year (ft 3 /s/y), respectively; and a significant upward trend in streamflow at Turkey Creek West Seepage below Teller Reservoir near Stone City, CO, with a slope of less than 0.001 ft 3 /s/y. Unlike for precipitation, the mean annual or seasonal streamflow for WY 2017 was not in the top 3 for any of the 12 sites with measured flow. At the PCMS, mean annual (or seasonal) streamflow was less than the long-term mean streamflow in WYs 2016–18 at the Taylor Arroyo below Rock Crossing near Thatcher, CO, and Bent Canyon Creek at Mouth near Timpas, CO, sites; and in WYs 2016 and 2018 at the Purgatoire River near Thatcher, CO (Purgatoire Thatcher), and Purgatoire River at Rock Crossing near Timpas, CO (Purgatoire Rock Crossing). There were no statistically significant trends in mean annual (or seasonal) streamflow at sites on the PCMS, and unlike for precipitation, the mean streamflow for WY 2017 was not in the top three for any sites except Purgatoire Rock Crossing. In WYs 2016–18, streamflow from sites on the AGFC and PCMS represented only a small fraction of streamflow in Fountain Creek or the Purgatoire River, and changes in streamflow that resulted from military maneuvers on the AGFC and PCMS were not likely to be detected in the downstream receiving waters. Suspended-sediment concentrations, loads, and yields for WYs 2016–18, were analyzed at two sites on the AGFC and five sites on the PCMS. On the AGFC, mean seasonal suspended-sediment concentrations ranged from 3.10 to 155 milligrams per liter (mg/L), mean seasonal suspended-sediment loads ranged from 0.04 to 27.1 tons per day (t/d), and seasonal suspended-sediment yields ranged from 0.28 to 216 tons per season per square mile (t/s/mi 2 ). Suspended-sediment yields at the two AGFC sites in WYs 2016–18 were all less than the long-term means. On the PCMS, mean seasonal suspended-sediment concentrations (at sites with some streamflow during a WY) ranged from 1.12 to 41.8 mg/L, mean suspended-sediment loads ranged from 0.01 to 13.1 t/d, and seasonal suspended-sediment yields ranged from 0.06 to 57.4 t/s/mi 2 . Suspended-sediment yields at the five PCMS sites in WYs 2016–18 were all less than the long-term means. In WYs 2016–18, mean daily suspended-sediment loads at Little Fountain were 1.3, 2.5, and 7.6 percent, respectively, of the mean daily suspended-sediment load at Fountain Creek at Security, Colorado. Likewise, the total of mean daily suspended-sediment loads from the five tributary sites to the Purgatoire River in WYs 2016–18 were about 0.25, 0.17, and 3.2 percent, respectively, of the historical mean daily suspended-sediment load at Purgatoire Thatcher. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was used to evaluate the strength and form of the relations between daily total precipitation and daily mean streamflow and between daily mean streamflow and suspended-sediment concentration and load for WYs 2016–18. For the sites on the AGFC and PCMS, there were weak or statistically insignificant positive correlations between precipitation and streamflow at nearby streamgauges, but strong statistically significant positive correlations between streamflow and suspended-sediment concentration and load. The ephemeral nature of the streams, quantity and timing of precipitation, air temperature, seasonal soil-moisture deficits, and effective runoff detention in erosion-control ponds could all contribute to inconsistent conversion of precipitation to streamflow. Water-quality data were analyzed for as many as 43 parameters from 9 samples collected from 3 sites on the AGFC and from 37 samples collected from 4 sites on PCMS during WYs 2016–18. The concentrations of selected water-quality parameters were compared to regulatory standards for aquatic life from the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (CDPHE) or aquatic-life criteria from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). There is at least 1 CDPHE standard or EPA criterion for 30 of the 43 water-quality parameters. For all samples from both the AGFC and the PCMS in WYs 2016–18, the concentrations of most water-quality parameters were compliant with the associated standards or criteria. However, there were some exceedances of standards or criteria: 11 samples exceeded the CDPHE recreational class standard for Escherichia coli concentration, 9 samples exceeded the CDPHE chronic unfiltered phosphorus aquatic-life standard, 36 samples exceeded the CDPHE chronic sulfate aquatic-life standard, 5 samples exceeded the EPA criterion for selenium, 7 samples exceeded the EPA criterion for aluminum, 2 samples exceeded the CDPHE chronic standard for iron, and 15 samples exceeded the CDPHE chronic standard for manganese. Identifying potential effects of military training on water quality in adjacent streams on the AGFC and PCMS is difficult due to the ephemeral nature of streamflow, limited number of sampling locations and samples, and limited access to the study areas. At the PCMS, pairs of water-quality samples were collected in March and May 2017 before and after an April–May 2017 military training event. At the Purgatoire Rock Crossing site, streamflow at the time of the May sample was approximately 35 times larger than streamflow for the March sample. The absolute percent differences of concentrations for 27 parameters ranged from −71.7 to 183 percent, and 7 parameters had increases in concentration whereas 22 parameters had no change or decreases in concentrations. The absolute percent differences of loads for 24 parameters ranged from 141 to 198 percent. The generally lower concentrations and higher loads were expected given the higher streamflows at the time of collection of the May compared to the March samples.

Colorado↗

USGS2023

Comparing domestic and public-supply groundwater quality in the northern San Joaquin Valley, 2019—California GAMA Priority Basin Project

Groundwater quality in the Northern San Joaquin Valley region of California was studied as part of California State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB) Groundwater Ambient Monitoring and Assessment Program-Priority Basin Project (GAMA-PBP). The GAMA-PBP made a spatially unbiased assessment of the aquifer system used for domestic drinking-water supply in the study region and compared the results to the aquifer system used for public drinking-water supply. These assessments characterized the quality of raw groundwater to evaluate ambient conditions in regional aquifers and not the quality of treated drinking water. The study included two components: (1) a status assessment presenting study results summarizing the status of groundwater quality used for domestic supply in the Northern San Joaquin Valley and (2) a comparative assessment of groundwater resources used for domestic and public drinking-water supply in the study region. The status assessment was based on data collected by the GAMA-PBP from 45 sites in the Northern San Joaquin Valley domestic-supply aquifer assessment study unit during 2019. To contextualize water-quality results, concentrations of water-quality constituents in ambient groundwater were compared to regulatory and non-regulatory benchmarks used by the State of California and Federal agencies as health-based or aesthetic standards for public drinking water. A grid-based method to estimate aquifer-scale proportions of groundwater resources with concentrations approaching or exceeding benchmark thresholds was used in the status assessment. This method provides spatially unbiased results and allows inter-comparability with similar groundwater-quality assessments. A spatially weighted method was used to calculate aquifer-scale proportions for public-supply wells within the domestic assessment grid network using contemporaneous regulatory compliance monitoring data. Differences among aquifer-scale proportions for constituents exceeding regulatory and non-regulatory benchmarks in domestic- and public-supply aquifers were quantitatively evaluated. Factors influencing the vertical and lateral distribution of key contaminants of concern (nitrate, fumigants, and arsenic) across overlapping aquifer systems used for domestic and public drinking-water supply were also evaluated. Status assessment results indicated inorganic and organic constituents with health-based benchmarks were present at high relative concentrations (RCs), meaning they exceeded a benchmark threshold, in 20 and 9 percent of the domestic-supply aquifer system in the Northern San Joaquin Valley, respectively. Inorganic constituents with health-based benchmarks present at high RCs included nitrate and arsenic. The only organic constituents with health-based benchmarks present at high RCs were the fumigants 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP) and 1,2,3-trichloropropane (1,2,3-TCP). Inorganic constituents with aesthetic-based benchmarks were present at high RCs in 13 percent of the domestic-supply aquifer system in the Northern San Joaquin Valley and included iron and manganese. Microbial indicators (total coliform bacteria and Enterococci) were present in 18 and 2 percent of the domestic-supply aquifer system in the Northern San Joaquin Valley, respectively. Comparative assessment results indicated inorganic and organic constituents with health-based benchmarks were present at high RCs in 13 and 6 percent of the public-supply aquifer system in the Northern San Joaquin Valley, respectively. Inorganic constituents with aesthetic-based benchmarks were present at high RCs in 22 percent of the public-supply aquifer system in the Northern San Joaquin Valley. There were no significant differences among high RC proportions for individual water-quality constituents, except for nitrate, which was greater in the domestic- compared to public-supply aquifer system in the Northern San Joaquin Valley. The most prevalent constituents with health-based benchmarks contributing to high RC proportions in the public-supply aquifer system were arsenic and fumigants, including DBCP and 1,2,3-TCP. Analysis of construction data for wells included in the comparative assessment indicated that, although depth to top of perforations are comparable for domestic and public-supply wells in the Northern San Joaquin Valley (median depth about 60 meters [m]), public-supply wells have longer perforation intervals and extend to deeper parts of the aquifer system than domestic wells that typically draw exclusively from the shallower aquifer system in the upper 80 m of unconsolidated sediments. Analysis of the vertical and lateral distribution of constituents of interest (nitrate, fumigants, and arsenic) across domestic- and public-supply aquifers indicated that nitrate is prevalent in shallow aquifers throughout the Northern San Joaquin Valley but is potentially diluted by mixing with deeper, older groundwater at long-screened public-supply wells. Fumigants were prevalent in areas of urban and agricultural land use in the western part of the Northern San Joaquin Valley, particularly in areas near Lodi, California, but 1,2,3-TCP was more widespread than DBCP and was detected in shallow and deeper parts of the aquifer system, potentially because of its recalcitrance in groundwater and ability to be detected at low concentrations. Arsenic was most prevalent in the western part of the Northern San Joaquin Valley with proximity to deltaic sediments and was detected at high RCs in wells tapping shallow and deep parts of the aquifer system.

California↗

USGS2024

Particle morphology and elemental analysis of lung tissue from post-9/11 military personnel with biopsy-proven lung disease

The relationship between exposure to inhaled inorganic particulate matter and risk for deployment-related lung disease in military personnel is unclear due in part to difficulties characterizing individual exposure to airborne hazards. We evaluated the association between self-reported deployment exposures and particulate matter (PM) contained in lung tissue from previously deployed personnel with lung disease (“deployers”). The PM in deployer tissues was compared to normal lung tissue PM using the analytical results of scanning electron microscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The majority of PM phases for both the deployers and the controls were sub-micrometer in size and were compositionally classified as aluminum and zirconium oxides, carbonaceous particles, iron oxides, titanium oxides, silica, other silicates, and other metals. The proportion of silica and other silicates was significantly higher in the retained dust from military veterans with biopsy-confirmed deployment-related lung disease compared to the control subjects. Within the deployer population, those who had combat jobs had a higher total PM burden, though the difference was not statistically significant. These findings have important implications for understanding the role of inhaled inorganic dusts in the risk for lung injury in previously deployed military veterans.

International Journal of Enviornmental Research an↗

USGS1987

Surface-water-quality assessment of the upper Illinois River basin in Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin; project description

In 1986, the U.S. Geological Survey began a National Water-Quality Assessment program to (1) provide nationally consistent descriptions of the current status of water quality for a large, diverse, and geographically distributed part of the Nation's surface- and ground-water resources; (2) define, where possible, trends in water quality; and (3) identify and describe the relations of both status and trends in water quality to natural factors and the history of land use and land- and waste-management activities. The program is presently in a pilot phase that will test and modify, as necessary, concepts and approaches in preparation for possible full implementation of the program in the future. The upper Illinois River basin is one of four basins selected to test the concepts and approaches of the surface-water-quality element of the national program. The basin drains 10,949 square miles of Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin. Three principal tributaries are the Kankakee and Des Plaines Rivers that join to form the Illinois River and the Fox River. Land use is predominantly agricultural; about 75 percent of the basin is cultivated primarily for production of corn and soybeans. About 13 percent of the basin is urban area, most of which is located in the Chicago metropolitan area. The population of the basin is about 7 million. About 6 million people live in the Des Plaines River basin. Many water-quality issues in the upper Illinois River basin are related to sediment, nutrients, potentially toxic inorganic and organic constituents, and to water-management practices. Occurrence of sediment and the chemical constituents in the rivers and lakes within the basin has the potential to adversely affect the water's suitability for aquatic life, recreation, or, through the consumption of fish, human health. The upper Illinois River basin project consists of five major activities. The first activity--analysis of existing information and preparation of a report that describes recent water-quality conditions and trends--is currently underway. The second activity--fixed-station water-quality sampling at eight stations--began in April 1987 and will last at least 3 years. Water-quality data collected at these stations will be used to determine the frequency of occurrence of constituent concentrations, their annual and seasonal loads, and time trends in concentrations for a selected number of constituents. The third activity will be synoptic water-quality studies. Each study will involve sampling many sites at specific flow conditions and for selected water-quality constituents. Information gained from these studies will supplement informa tion gained from fixed-station sampling. A synoptic study of streambed sediments is tentatively planned for the summer of 1987 to describe the occurrence and distribution of trace elements in the basin. The fourth activity will consist of one or more topical subbasin or river-reach studies. The purpose of such studies is to better define certain water-quality conditions in specific areas and gain an understanding of the processes affecting the observed conditions. The fifth activity is the preparation of reports that will describe results from each of the first four activities. Quality assurance and coordination are being provided at both the national and pilot-project levels. A technical quality-assurance plan that addresses all aspects of sample collection, analysis, and reporting is being prepared at the national level. This plan will be appended as needed at the pilot-project level. A National Coordinating Work Group that functions under the auspices of the Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data and the Advisory Committee on Water Data for Public Use has been established at the national level. A local liaison committee consisting of representatives from Federal, State, and local agencies has been established to enhance communication and to ensure that the scientific information produced by the

Open-File Report↗

USGS2009

Ground-water quality data in the San Francisco Bay study unit, 2007: Results from the California GAMA Program

Ground-water quality in the approximately 620-square-mile San Francisco Bay study unit (SFBAY) was investigated from April through June 2007 as part of the Priority Basin project of the Ground-Water Ambient Monitoring and Assessment (GAMA) Program. The GAMA Priority Basin project was developed in response to the Groundwater Quality Monitoring Act of 2001, and is being conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in cooperation with the California State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB). The study was designed to provide a spatially unbiased assessment of raw ground-water quality, as well as a statistically consistent basis for comparing water quality throughout California. Samples in SFBAY were collected from 79 wells in San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Alameda, and Contra Costa Counties. Forty-three of the wells sampled were selected using a spatially distributed, randomized grid-based method to provide statistical representation of the study unit (grid wells). Thirty-six wells were sampled to aid in evaluation of specific water-quality issues (understanding wells). The ground-water samples were analyzed for a large number of synthetic organic constituents (volatile organic compounds [VOC], pesticides and pesticide degradates, pharmaceutical compounds, and potential wastewater-indicator compounds), constituents of special interest (perchlorate and N-nitrosodimethylamine [NDMA]), naturally occurring inorganic constituents (nutrients, major and minor ions, trace elements, chloride and bromide isotopes, and uranium and strontium isotopes), radioactive constituents, and microbial indicators. Naturally occurring isotopes (tritium, carbon-14 isotopes, and stable isotopes of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, boron, and carbon), and dissolved noble gases (noble gases were analyzed in collaboration with Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory) also were measured to help identify the source and age of the sampled ground water. Quality-control samples (blank samples, replicate samples, matrix spike samples) were collected for approximately one-third of the wells, and the results for these samples were used to evaluate the quality of the data for the ground-water samples. Assessment of the quality-control information from the field blanks resulted in applying “V” codes to approximately 0.1 percent of the data collected for ground-water samples (meaning a constituent was detected in blanks as well as the corresponding environmental data). See the Appendix section “Quality-Control-Sample Results.” This study did not attempt to evaluate the quality of water delivered to consumers; after withdrawal from the ground, water typically is treated, disinfected, and (or) blended with other waters to maintain acceptable water quality. Regulatory thresholds apply to treated water that is delivered to the consumer, not to raw ground water. However, to provide some context for the results, concentrations of constituents measured in the raw ground water were compared with regulatory and non-regulatory health-based thresholds established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and California Department of Public Health (CDPH) and thresholds established for aesthetic concerns (secondary maximum contaminant levels, SMCL-CA) by CDPH. VOCs were detected in about one-half of the grid wells, while pesticides were detected in about one-fifth of the grid wells. Concentrations of all VOCs and pesticides detected in samples from all SFBAY wells were below health-based thresholds. No pharmaceutical compounds were detected in any SFBAY well. One potential wastewater-indicator compound, caffeine, was detected in one grid well in SFBAY. Concentrations of most trace elements and nutrients detected in samples from all SFBAY wells were below health-based thresholds. Exceptions include nitrate, detected above the USEPA maximum contaminant level (MCL-US) in 3samples; arsenic, above the USEPA maximum contaminant level (MCL-US) in 3 samples; cadmium, above the MCL-US in 1 sample; boron, above the CDPH notification level (NL-CA) in 2 samples; and strontium, above the USEPA lifetime health advisory level (HAL-US) in 2 samples. The radioactive constituent radon-222 was detected above the proposed MCL-US in two grid wells, but no wells had detections above the proposed alternative MCL-US. Most of the samples from all SFBAY wells had concentrations of major ions, total dissolved solids, and trace elements below the non-enforceable thresholds set for aesthetic concerns. Six or fewer samples contained chloride, sulfate, or iron at concentrations above the SMCL-CA thresholds. No microbial indicators were detected in SFBAY grid wells.

California↗