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USGS2003

Plasma insulin-like growth factor-I concentrations in yearling chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) migrating from the Snake River Basin, USA

During the parr-to-smolt transformation (smoltification) of juvenile salmonids, preadaptive changes in osmoregulatory and ionoregulatory ability are regulated in part by the growth hormone (GH)/insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) axis. If food intake is sufficient, plasma IGF-I increases during smoltification. On the other hand, plasma IGF-I typically decreases in fasting fish and other vertebrate animals. Because food availability is limited for juvenile salmonids undertaking an extended 6- to 12-week spring migration to and through the Snake-Columbia River hydropower system (northwestern USA), IGF-I concentrations might be expected to decrease, potentially compromising seawater tolerance. To address this possibility, yearling chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha reared in three Snake River Basin hatcheries were sampled before release and at two downstream dams. Dry masses of migrating fish either did not increase during the migration (in 2000, an average-flow year), or decreased significantly (in 2001, a low-flow year). In both years, plasma IGF-I levels were significantly higher (1.6-fold in 2000, 3.7-fold in 2001) for fish sampled at the last dam on the lower Columbia River than for fish sampled prior to release. Plasma IGF-I concentrations in migrating fish may, nonetheless, have been nutritionally down-regulated to some degree, because plasma IGF-I concentrations in juvenile chinook salmon captured at a Snake River dam and transported to the laboratory increased in fed groups, but decreased in unfed groups. The ability of migrating smolts to maintain relatively elevated IGF-I levels despite restricted food intake and loss of body mass is likely related to smoltification-associated changes in hormonal balance. ?? 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Fish Physiology and Biochemistry↗

USGS1980

Development of sea lamprey ( Petromyzon marinus ) larvicides

Larvicides are used to control sea lamprey ( Petromyzon marinus ) in the Great Lakes. These larvicides are useful because they are more toxic to sea lamprey than fish species found in the same habitat. The lampricides come from two classes of chemical compounds: (1) halonitrophenols, and (2) halonitrosalicylanilides. Selectivity of the larvicides appears to be based on the differences in the ability of sea lamprey larvae and fishes to detoxify and/or excrete the chemicals. Glucuronide conjugation is an important mechanism for detoxification of these larvicides by fish, and selectivity of larvicides may be due to differences in glucuronyl transferase activity between lamprey and fishes. If more detailed information were available on uptake, metabolism, excretion, and the biochemistry and physiology of lamprey as compared to fishes, it might be possible to design chemicals that would be more selective than those now in use.

Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences↗

USGS1990

Whole body and tissue blood volumes of two strains of rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss )

1. Estimates of apparent packed cell, plasma and total blood volumes for the whole body and for 13 selected tissues were compared between Kamloops and Wytheville strains of rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) by the simultaneous injection of two vascular tracers, radiolabeled trout erythrocytes ( 51 Cr-RBC) and radioiodated bovine serum albumin ( 125 I-BSA). 2. Whole body total blood volume, plasma volume and packed cell volume were slightly, but not significantly greater in the Wytheville trout, whereas, the apparent plasma volumes and total blood volumes in 4 of 13 tissues were significantly greater in the Kamloops strain. 3. Differences were most pronounced in highly perfused organs, such as the liver and kidney and in organs of digestion such as the stomach and intestines. 4. Differences in blood volumes between the two strains may be related to the greater permeability of the vascular membranes in the Kamloops strain fish.

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A: M↗

USGS1971

Na+, K+-activated-ATPase inhibition in rainbow trout: A site for organochlorine pesticide toxicity?

1. The Na + , K + -activated, Mg 2+ -dependent-ATPase enzyme system in a heavy microsomal fraction of rainbow trout ( Salmo gairdneri ) brain was inhibited in vitro by chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. 2. T 50 (concentration at 50 per cent inhibition) values for dicofol, endosulfan and DDT were 5 × 10 −6 , 3 × 10 −5 and 1 × 10 −4 M respectively. Similar inhibition by these pesticides occurred in kidney and gill ATPase preparations. 3. An unexpected finding was a failure of the classic inhibitor, ouabain, to block the Na + , K + -activated component of ATPase activity in the gill. 4. It is suggested that inhibition of ATPase activity may be a causal factor in the toxic effects of organochlorine pesticides in fishes.

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part B: C↗

USGS2010

Annual sex steroid and other physiological profiles of Pacific lampreys ( Entosphenus tridentatus )

We documented changes in plasma levels of estradiol 17-β (E2), progesterone (P), 15α-hydroxytestosterone (15α-T), thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), protein, triglycerides (TGs), and glucose in adult Pacific lampreys ( Entosphenus tridentatus ) held in the laboratory in two different years. Levels of E2 in both sexes ranged from 0.5 to 2 ng/mL from September to March, peaked in late April (2–4 ng/mL), and decreased in May, with levels higher in males than in females. Levels of P were low from September through April, but then increased substantially during May (2–4 ng/mL), with levels again highest in males. Levels of 15α-T in males were around 0.75 ng/mL through the winter before exceeding 1 ng/mL in April and decreasing thereafter, whereas females showed a gradual increase from 0.25 ng/mL in November to 0.5 ng/mL in April before decreasing. Thyroxine concentrations differed between fish in each year, with most having levels ranging from 0.75 to 2.5 ng/mL in the fall and winter, and only fish in 2003 showing distinct peaks (3–4 ng/mL) in early April or May. Plasma T3 was undetectable from November through mid-March before surging dramatically in April (ca. 150 ng/mL) and decreasing thereafter. Levels of protein, TGs, and glucose decreased or were stable during the fall and winter with TGs and glucose surging in late April to early May for some fish. Our study is the first to document long-term physiological changes in Pacific lampreys during overwintering and sexual maturation and increases our understanding of the life history of this unique fish.

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A: M↗

USGS2005

A non-lethal method to estimate CYP1A expression in laboratory and wild Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar )

Expression of cytochrome P4501A (CYP1A) has been used as a biomarker for possible exposure to contaminants such as PCBs and dioxins in teleost fish. Using a quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (Q-RT-PCR) and a non-lethal gill biopsy, we estimated levels of CYP1A mRNA expression in Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar ). Groups of ten Atlantic salmon juveniles (48–76 g) received an intraperitoneal injection of 50 μg g − 1 β-naphthoflavone (BNF) or vehicle. Their gill tissues were repeatedly sampled by non-lethal biopsies on day 0, 1, 2 and 7. Control fish expressed basal levels of CYP1A over the duration of sampling. BNF-treated salmon demonstrated similar levels of CYP1A to control fish at day 0 and higher levels over the course of each additional sampling point. Gill biopsies from wild salmon sampled from Millers River (South Royalston, Worcester County, MA, USA), known to contain PCBs, showed significantly higher CYP1A levels over an uncontaminated reference stream, Fourmile Brook (Northfield, Franklin County, MA, USA). We conclude that gill biopsies coupled with Q-RT-PCR analysis is a valuable tool in environmental assessment of wild Atlantic salmon populations and has the potential to be applied to other populations of fish as well.

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part C: T↗

USGS1982

Amino acid nutrition of fishes: requirements and supplementation of diets

The purpose of this paper is: (1) to make a concise review of the published dietary requirements of fishes for amino acids, (2) to describe recent findings at the Tunison Laboratory concerning amino acid nutrition of trout, (3) to review specific signs of deficiency of amino acids, and (4) to discuss use of the fish egg amino acid pattern as a guideline to formulating new feeds or studying amino acid requirements of fishes for which there is limited information on their quantitative requirements.

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part B: C↗

USGS1990

Measurements of the abilities of cultured fishes to moisturize their digesta

1. Four salmonid and four cool-water fish species were tested to determine their ability to moisturize their digesta. 2. After the fish were fed, they were sacrificed, the gut contents were removed and water content was determined. 3. The digesta of the salmonids contained the least water (63–72%) and those of largemouth bass the most (78%). 4. We conclude that there are distinct and significant differences between species and genera in the ability of fish to moisturize their digesta. The potential significance of this finding is discussed.

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A: P↗

USGS1979

Allantoinase in lake trout ( Salvelinus namaycush ): In vitro effects of PCBs, DDT and metals

1. Allantoinase, an enzyme in the purine-urea cycle, was found in livers of Salvelinus namaycush (Osteichthyes: Salmoniformes). 2. The enzyme was active from pH 6.6 to 8.2 at 37°C and from pH 7.4 to 9.0 at 10°C and had an Arrhenius energy was activation of 11.0 kcal/mol and a temperature quotient of 2.0. The K m of the enzyme homogenate was 8.4 mM allantoin. 3. The concentrations of inorganic metals at which 50% inhibition occurred during in vitro exposure were 6.0 mg/l Cu 2+ , 6.7 mg/l Cd 2+ , 34 mg/l Hg 2+ and 52 mg/l Pb 2+ . The in vitro sensitivity to PCBs, DDT and DDE and kinetics in the presence of metals were determined. 4. Allantoinase activity was negatively correlated with body length for fish from Lake Michigan but not from Lake Superior or the laboratory.

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part C: C↗

USGS2004

PCB impairs smoltification and seawater performance in anadromous Arctic charr ( Salvelinus alpinus )

The impacts of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) exposure on smoltification and subsequent seawater performance were investigated in hatchery-reared, anadromous Arctic charr ( Salvelinus alpinus ). The fish were subjected to a 2-month summer seawater residence, after which they were orally dosed with 0 (Control, C), 1 (Low Dose, LD) or 100 mg Aroclor 1254 kg −1 body mass (High Dose, HD) in November. They were then held in fresh water, without being fed (to mimic their natural overwintering in freshwater), until they had smolted in June the next year. The smolts were then transferred to seawater and fed to mimic their summer feeding residence in seawater, followed by a period without food in freshwater from August until maturation in October. Compared with C and LD charr, the HD charr had either a transient or a permanent reduction in plasma growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor-1, and thyroxin and triiodothyronine titers during the period of smoltification. These hormonal alterations in the HD charr corresponded with impaired hyposmoregulatory ability in May and June, as well as reduced growth rate and survival after transference to seawater. Consequently, fewer fish in the HD group matured in October compared to the other two treatments. The HD fish had a liver PCB concentration ranging between 14 and 42 mg kg −1 wet mass, whereas there were similar, and very low, liver PCB concentrations in LD and C fish throughout the smolting period. Our findings suggest that PCB might compromise mechanisms important for fitness in a fish species living in an extreme environment.

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part C: T↗

USGS2002

Fasting modifies Aroclor 1254 impact on plasma cortisol, glucose and lactate responses to a handling disturbance in Arctic charr

Integrated effects of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) and nutritional status on responses to handling disturbance were investigated in the Arctic charr ( Salvelinus alpinus ). The fish were orally contaminated with Aroclor 1254 and held either with or without food for 5 months before they were subjected to a 10-min handling disturbance. Food-deprived fish were given 0, 1, 10 or 100 mg PCB kg −1 and the fed fish 0 or 100 mg PCB kg −1 . Plasma cortisol, glucose and lactate levels were measured at 0 (pre-handling), 1, 3, 6 and 23 h after the handling disturbance. Food-deprived control fish had elevated plasma cortisol levels compared with fed fish before handling. These basal cortisol levels were suppressed by PCB in food-deprived fish, and elevated by PCB in fed fish. The immediate cortisol and glucose responses to handling disturbance were suppressed by PCB in a dose-dependent way in food-deprived fish. Although these responses were also lowered by PCB in the fed fish, the effect was much less pronounced than in food-deprived fish. There were only minor effects on plasma lactate responses. Our findings suggest that the stress responses of the Arctic charr are compromised by PCB and that the long-term fasting, typical of high-latitude fish, makes these species particularly sensitive to organochlorines such as PCB.

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part C: T↗

USGS1968

The oxidation of drugs by fishes

1. Fish liver microsomal systems have been found to catalyze the hydroxylation of aniline and acetanilide, the N-demethylation of aminopyrine and the O-dealkylation of phenacetin. 2. These systems are similar to the corresponding mammalian enzymes and they may be considered to be mixed function oxidase since they require NADPH and oxygen. An absolute requirement for oxygen, however, was difficult to demonstrate for the hepatic phenacetin cleavage system from fish. 3. Microsomal drug metabolizing systems from fish have temperature optima which are considerably lower than those of corresponding mammalian systems

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A: M↗

USGS1998

Osmoregulatory actions of the GH/IGF axis in non-salmonid teleosts

Salmonid fishes provided the first findings on the influence of the growth hormone (GH)/insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) axis on osmoregulation in teleost fishes. Recent studies on non-salmonid species, however, indicate that this physiological action of the GH/IGF-I axis is not restricted to salmonids or anadromous fishes. GH-producing cells in the pituitary of fish acclimated to different salinities show different degrees of activation depending on the species studied. Plasma GH levels either increase or do not change after transfer of fish from freshwater to seawater. Treatment with GH or IGF-I increases salinity tolerance and/or increases gill Na + ,K + -ATPase activity of killifish ( Fundulus heteroclitus ), tilapia ( Oreochromis mossambicus and Oreochromis niloticus ) and striped bass ( Morone saxatilis ). As in salmonids, a positive interaction between GH and cortisol for improving hypoosmoregulatory capacity has been described in tilapia ( O . mossambicus ). Research on the osmoregulatory role of the GH/IGF-I axis is derived from a small number of teleost species. The study of more species with different osmoregulary patterns will be necessary to fully clarify the osmoregulatory role of GH/IGF-I axis in fish. The available data does suggest, however, that the influence of the GH/IGF-I axis on osmoregulation may be a common feature of euryhalinity in teleosts.

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part B: B↗

USGS1977

Reassociation and hybridization properties of DNAs from several species of fish

Reassociation and hybridization properties from spectrophotometric studies of DNAs from 10 species of fish indicate: 1. Great diversity in the amounts of repeated sequences in the genomes of different species - more specialized fish had less redundancy. 2. Large differences in the complexities of the DNAs - more specialized fish had less information. 3. Little homology between sequences of remotely related species but substantial homology between sequences of closely related species.

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part B: C↗

USGS1998

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor function in early vertebrates:Inducibility of cytochrome P450 1A in agnathan and elasmobranch fish

The mammalian aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that controls the expression of cytochrome P450 1A (CYP1A) genes in response to halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons such as 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo- p -dioxin (TCDD). The natural ligand and normal physiologic function of this protein are as yet unknown. One approach to understanding AHR function and significance is to determine the evolutionary history of this receptor and of processes such as CYP1A induction that are controlled by the AHR in mammals. In these studies, AHR function was evaluated in representative cartilaginous fish (little skate, Raja erinacea ) and jawless fish (sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus and Atlantic hagfish, Myxine glutinosa ), using CYP1A induction as a model AHR-dependent response. Treatment of skate with β -naphthoflavone (BNF) caused an 8-fold increase in hepatic ethoxyresorufin O -deethylase (EROD) activity as well as a 37-fold increase in the content of immunodetectable CYP1A protein. Evidence of CYP1A inducibility was also obtained for another cartilaginous fish, the smooth dogfish Mustelus canis . In contrast, hepatic EROD activity was not detected in untreated lamprey nor in lamprey treated with 3,3′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl (TCB), a potent AHR agonist in teleosts. A possible CYP1A homolog was detected in lamprey hepatic microsomes by one of three antibodies to teleost CYP1A, but expression of this protein was not altered by TCB treatment. CYP1A protein and catalytic activity were measurable in hagfish, but neither was induced after treatment with TCB. These results suggest that the AHR-CYP1A signal transduction pathway is highly conserved in gnathostomes, but that there may be fundamental differences in AHR signaling or AHR-CYP1A coupling in agnathan fish. Agnathan fish such as hagfish and lamprey may be interesting model species for examining possible ancestral AHR functions not related to CYP1A regulation.

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part C: P↗

USGS1993

Effects of salinity on chloride cells and Na+ K+-ATPase activity in the teleost Gillchthys mirabilis

1. Longjawed mudsuckers, Gillichthys mirabilis , in 30ppt seawater (SW) were transferred to 1.5, 30 and 60ppt SW. 2. In the first 1–3 days after transfer, plasma chloride level and plasma osmolarity rose in the 60ppt SW fish, and decreased in the 1.5ppt SW fish. 3. By day 21, however, plasma chloride and osmolarity were at or near the levels seen in the controls (30ppt). 4. Branchial and jawskin Na + , K + -ATPase activities were high in all salinities, and did not differ significantly among treatments. 5. The vital fluorescent stains DASPEI and anthroylouabain were used to detect mitochondria and Na + , K + -ATPase, respectively, in chloride cells. 6. Both stains indicated that jawskin chloride cell density did not differ among treatment groups. 7. In contrast, chloride cell size increased significantly with increasing salinity. 8. The chloride cells of fish in 60 ppt SW were noticeably angular in outline, whereas those of both the 1.5 and 30ppt SW fish were circular. 9. The results are discussed in relation to the ion transport requirements encountered in the intertidal habitat of the mudsucker.

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A: P↗

USGS2001

Behavioral dysfunctions correlate to altered physiology in rainbow trout (Oncorynchus mykiss) exposed to cholinesterase-inhibiting chemicals

We selected four metrics of swimming behavior (distance swam, speed, rate of turning, and tortuosity of path) and the commonly used biochemical marker, brain cholinesterase (ChE) activity, to assess (1) the sensitivity and reliability of behavior as a potential biomarker in monitoring work, (2) the potential for these endpoints to be used in automated monitoring, and (3) the linkage between behavior and its underlying biochemistry. Malathion-exposed fish exhibited large decreases in distance and speed and swam in a more linear path than control fish after 24 h exposure. By 96 h exposure, fish still swam slower and traveled less distance; fish fully recovered after 48 h in clean water. Diazinon-exposed fish exhibited decreases in distance, speed, and turning rate compared to controls. After 48 h recovery in clean water, fish exposed to diazinon had not recovered to control levels. The behavioral responses provided measures of neurotoxicity that were easily quantifiable by automated means, implying that the inclusion of behavior in monitoring programs can be successful. Furthermore, correlations between behavior and biochemical endpoints, such as ChE inhibition, suggest that this approach can provide a meaningful link between biochemistry and behavior and can provide useful information on toxicant impacts.

Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxico↗

USGS2009

Recommendations for control of pathogens and infectious diseases in fish research facilities

Concerns about infectious diseases in fish used for research have risen along with the dramatic increase in the use of fish as models in biomedical research. In addition to acute diseases causing severe morbidity and mortality, underlying chronic conditions that cause low-grade or subclinical infections may confound research results. Here we present recommendations and strategies to avoid or minimize the impacts of infectious agents in fishes maintained in the research setting. There are distinct differences in strategies for control of pathogens in fish used for research compared to fishes reared as pets or in aquaculture. Also, much can be learned from strategies and protocols for control of diseases in rodents used in research, but there are differences. This is due, in part, the unique aquatic environment that is modified by the source and quality of the water provided and the design of facilities. The process of control of pathogens and infectious diseases in fish research facilities is relatively new, and will be an evolving process over time. Nevertheless, the goal of documenting, detecting, and excluding pathogens in fish is just as important as in mammalian research models.

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part C: T↗