Larval diet of the rare caddisfly Glyphopsyche missouri (Trichoptera: Limnephilidae) in Missouri, USA
No abstract available.
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Geology topics
Research about Missouri
Source-linked reports with geographic coverage including Missouri.
Technical memorandum: Compound specific isotope analysis, Oak Grove Village well site OU1, Franklin County, Missouri
A study involving Compound Specific Isotope Analysis (CSIA) of trichloroethene (TCE) in groundwater at the Oak Grove Village (OGV) Well Site was conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 2014 in an effort to fingerprint the source(s). This technical memorandum, written as a joint effort between HydroGeoLogic, Inc. (HGL) and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Central Midwest Water Science Center (Schumacher, 2019), documents the procedures and analysis of the CSIA investigation. CSIA is an analytical method that measures the isotopic ratios of naturally occurring stable isotopes in specific chemical compounds in environmental samples. CSIA using primarily the ratio of carbon 13 C/ 12 C (δ 13 C), known as 1-D CSIA, has been used for decades in evaluating degradation pathways of organic compounds, including chlorinated solvents such as TCE. Ratios of stable chlorine isotopes 37 Cl/ 35 Cl (δ 37 Cl) also have been used with carbon isotopes, collectively known as 2-D CSIA, and most recently isotopes of hydrogen 2 H/ 1 H (δ 2 H) have been added, collectively known as 3-D CSIA, in attempts to further determine source, transport, and fate of compounds such as TCE (Ertl et al., 1998; Hunkeler et al., 2011; Kuder et al., 2013; McHugh et al., 2011; Shouakar-Stash et al., 2003; EPA, 2008; and van Warmerdam et al., 1995.
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Comparing native bee communities on reconstructed and remnant prairie in Missouri
The tallgrass prairie of North America is an imperiled ecosystem that has been the subject of considerable restoration effort and research in the past two decades. While native prairie plant species are purposely introduced during restoration, prairie invertebrates, including native bees (Anthophila), are not, and must colonize from surrounding remnants. Prairie restorations may not support the same bee communities as remnant prairies because of habitat differences and dispersal limitations. We sampled native bees on reconstructed and remnant prairies in Missouri in the summers of 2016 and 2017 and compared the communities by evaluating species richness, diversity, and community composition. We detected no differences in bee species richness or diversity between reconstructions and remnants; remnants and reconstructions shared all but three of the 57 taxa observed. Community composition of bees on reconstructions was different from that of remnants because of differences in the relative abundance of taxa. Several species were associated with either reconstructed or remnant prairies. At a functional level, stem nesters were more common on reconstructed than remnant prairie. We also examined whether bee communities on reconstructions converged with those observed on remnants over time by comparing bee communities across restorations of different ages and found that reconstruction communities did not appear to be converging with remnants. Reconstructing prairie bee communities may depend on restoring soil conditions and disturbance regimes that influence bee nesting habitat.
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An experimental evaluation of the feasibility of inferring concentrations of a visible tracer dye from remotely sensed data in turbid rivers
The movement of contaminants and biota within river channels is influenced by the flow field via various processes of dispersion. Understanding and modeling of these processes thus can facilitate applications ranging from the prediction of travel times for spills of toxic materials to the simulation of larval drift for endangered species of fish. A common means of examining dispersion in rivers involves conducting tracer experiments with a visible tracer dye. Whereas conventional in situ instruments can only measure variations in dye concentration over time at specific, fixed locations, remote sensing could provide more detailed, spatially distributed information for characterizing dispersion patterns and validating two-dimensional numerical models. Although previous studies have demonstrated the potential to infer dye concentrations from remotely sensed data in clear-flowing streams, whether this approach can be applied to more turbid rivers remains an open question. To evaluate the feasibility of mapping spatial patterns of dispersion in streams with greater turbidity, we conducted an experiment that involved manipulating dye concentration and turbidity while acquiring field spectra and hyperspectral and RGB (red, green, blue) images from a small Unoccupied Aircraft System (sUAS). Applying an Optimal Band Ratio Analysis (OBRA) algorithm to these data sets indicated strong relationships between reflectance (i.e., water color) and Rhodamine WT dye concentration across four different turbidity levels from 40-60 NTU. Moreover, we obtained high correlations between spectrally based quantities (i.e., band ratios) and dye concentration for the original, essentially continuous field spectra; field spectra resampled to the bands of a five-band imaging system and an RGB camera; and both hyperspectral and RGB images acquired from a sUAS during the experiment. The results of this study thus confirmed the potential to map dispersion patterns of tracer dye via remote sensing and suggested that this approach can be extended to more turbid rivers than those examined previously.
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Quality of surface water in Missouri, water year 2018
The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Missouri Department of Natural Resources, designed and operates a network of monitoring stations on streams and springs throughout Missouri known as the Ambient Water-Quality Monitoring Network. During water year 2018 (October 1, 2017, through September 30, 2018), water-quality data were collected at 76 stations: 74 Ambient Water-Quality Monitoring Network stations and 2 U.S. Geological Survey National Stream Quality Assessment Network stations. Among the 76 stations in this report, 4 stations have data presented from additional sampling performed in cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Summaries of the concentrations of dissolved oxygen, specific conductance, water temperature, suspended solids, suspended sediment, Escherichia coli bacteria, fecal coliform bacteria, dissolved nitrate plus nitrite as nitrogen, total phosphorus, dissolved and total recoverable lead and zinc, and selected pesticide compounds are presented. Most of the stations have been classified based on the physiographic province or primary land use in the watershed monitored by the station. Some stations have been classified based on the unique hydrologic characteristics of the waterbodies (springs, large rivers) they monitor. A summary of hydrologic conditions including peak streamflows, monthly mean streamflows, and 7-day low flows also are presented for representative streamflow-gaging stations in the State.
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Columbia Environmental Research Center
The U.S. Geological Survey Columbia Environmental Research Center performs research to solve challenging environmental problems related to contaminants and habitat alterations in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The research is interdisciplinary and pursued through partnerships within the U.S. Geological Survey and with national, international, state, and local agencies; nongovernmental organizations; and universities. Research is prioritized to provide science to the U.S. Department of the Interior and other natural resource management agencies to inform rehabilitation of degraded habitats and imperiled fish and wildlife populations. The Columbia Environmental Research Center was established in 1966 in Columbia, Missouri, as the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s Fish Pesticide Research Laboratory; the Columbia Environmental Research Center was incorporated into the U.S. Geological Survey in 1996. The U.S. Geological Survey’s staff of 130 includes 90 scientists of which one-half have advanced degrees in ecology, toxicology, biology, biochemistry, chemistry, hydrology, geology, and information technology.
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Factors influencing neonicotinoid insecticide concentrations in floodplain wetland sediments across Missouri
Widespread use of neonicotinoid insecticides in North America has led to frequent detection of neonicotinoids in surface waters. Despite frequent surface water detection, few studies have evaluated underlying sediments for the presence of neonicotinoids. Thus, we sampled water and sediments for neonicotinoids during a one-year period at 40 floodplain wetlands throughout Missouri. Analyzed for six common neonicotinoids, sediment samples consistently (63% of samples) contained neonicotinoids (e.g., imidacloprid and clothianidin) in all sampling periods. Mean sediment and aqueous neonicotinoid concentrations were 1.19 μg kg –1 (range: 0–17.99 μg kg –1 ) and 0.03 μg L –1 (0–0.97 μg L –1 ), respectively. We used boosted regression tree analysis to explain sediment neonicotinoid concentrations and ultimately identified six variables that accounted for 31.6% of concentration variability. Efforts to limit sediment neonicotinoid contamination could include reducing agriculture within a wetland below a threshold of 25% area planted. Also, prolonging periods of overlying water >25 cm deep when water temperatures reach/exceed 18 °C could promote conditions favorable for neonicotinoid degradation. Results of this study can be useful in determining potential routes and levels of neonicotinoid exposure experienced by nontarget benthic aquatic invertebrates as well as potential means to mitigate neonicotinoid concentrations in floodplain wetlands.
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Flood-inundation maps for Joachim Creek, De Soto, Missouri, 2018
Digital flood-inundation maps for a 6.7-mile reach of Joachim Creek, De Soto, Missouri, were created by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in cooperation with the city of De Soto and Jefferson County, Missouri. The flood-inundation maps, which can be accessed through the USGS Flood Inundation Mapping Program website at https://www.usgs.gov/mission-areas/water-resources/science/flood-inundation-mapping-fim-program , depict estimates of the areal extent and depth of flooding corresponding to selected water levels (stages) at the USGS streamgage Joachim Creek at De Soto, Missouri (station number 07019500). Near-real-time stages at this streamgage may be obtained on the internet from the USGS National Water Information System at https://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis or the National Weather Service Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Service at https://water.weather.gov/ahps2/hydrograph.php?wfo=lsx&gage=desm7 , which also forecasts flood hydrographs at this site (site DESM7). Flood profiles were computed for the stream reach using a one-dimensional model for simulation of water-surface profiles with steady-state (gradually varied) or unsteady-state flow computation options. The model was calibrated by using the theoretical stage-discharge relation at the USGS streamgage Joachim Creek at De Soto, Missouri (station number 07019500), and documented high-water marks from the flood of April 18, 2013. The hydraulic model was then used to compute 10 water surface profiles for flood stages at 1-foot (ft) intervals referenced to the streamgage datum. The profiles ranged from 8.0 ft, or near bankfull, to 17.0 ft, which exceeds the stage that corresponds to the estimated 0.2-percent annual exceedance probability flood (500-year recurrence interval flood). The simulated water-surface profiles were then combined with a geographic information system digital elevation model (derived from light detection and ranging data having a 0.60-ft vertical accuracy and 1.97-ft horizontal resolution) to delineate the area flooded at each water level. The availability of these maps, along with internet information regarding current stage from the USGS streamgage and forecasted high-flow stages from the National Weather Service, will provide emergency management personnel and residents with information that is critical for flood-response activities such as evacuations and road closures and for post-flood recovery efforts.
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Nutrients in northern Missouri streams
Nutrients, specifically nitrogen and phosphorus, are necessary for healthy aquatic communities to thrive, but if nutrient concentrations are too high, water quality can be degraded and natural aquatic communities may be destroyed. Nutrients consistently have been listed nationally as one of the top five causes of stream and river impairments, and agriculture consistently has been identified as the leading known source. The Mississippi River watershed was identified as a top priority for nutrient reductions because of the predominant agricultural land use, the associated harmful effects of nutrient loading on local water bodies, and the resulting annual midsummer northern Gulf of Mexico hypoxic “dead” zone. In 2010, the Natural Resources Conservation Service started the Mississippi River Basin Healthy Watersheds Initiative, which offers financial and technical assistance for voluntary conservation practices on agricultural lands. The intention is to reduce nutrient and sediment export to waterways within the Mississippi River watershed. The U.S. Geological Survey Missouri Water Science Center and the Missouri Department of Natural Resources began a cooperative study in 2010 to compare temporal changes in total nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations in the Lower Grand River. Despite increases in conservation practice funding from the Mississippi River Basin Healthy Watersheds Initiative during 2011–15 for the Lower Grand River, decreases in flow-normalized total nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations during this same period at the Grand River site were less than at the other long-term Missouri River tributary sites that did not receive additional funding. The flow-normalized total nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations at the three long-term Missouri River tributary sites were related to the amount of agricultural land use within their watersheds and livestock manure may be a substantial source of stream nitrogen. Monthly total nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations within the Lower Grand River increased with increased streamflow, indicating that the major sources of nitrogen and phosphorus are runoff or nutrients that are stored in soils within the streambank that mobilize during higher streamflows. Programs such as the Mississippi River Basin Healthy Watersheds Initiative are intended to encourage voluntary agricultural conservation practices to enhance soil health and reduce nutrient export to streams.
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Geophysical assessment of a proposed landfill site in Fredericktown, Missouri
In June 2018, U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) collected geophysical measurements to help evaluate the suitability of a proposed landfill site for disposing mine-waste materials in Fredericktown, MO. The geophysical investigation included electromagnetic induction, electrical resistivity tomography, horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio passive seismic, and shear-wave refraction to characterize the unconsolidated sediment or regolith above the bedrock and the depth to crystalline bedrock. Water-based electromagnetic surveys and forward looking infrared imagery were used along the lake shoreline to identify potential groundwater-surface water interactions. Nested piezometers were installed at two locations along the shoreline to further characterize and validate the groundwater-surface water interactions identified with geophysical methods. Collectively, geophysical surveys were used to evaluate the overall suitability of the proposed site for use as a mine waste-soil and sediment repository and to evaluate this suite of geophysical methods for rapid collection and assessment of very shallow sediments.
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Where was the 31 October 1895, Charleston, Missouri Earthquake?
We revisit the magnitude and location of the 31 October 1895 Charleston, Missouri earthquake, which is widely regarded to be the last M W 6 or greater earthquake in the central United States. Although a recent study (Bakun et al., 2003) concluded that this earthquake was located in southern Illinois, over 100 km north of the traditionally inferred location near Charleston, Missouri, our analysis of exhaustively compiled macroseismic data supports the traditionally inferred location, with a preferred magnitude of M W ≈ 5.8, and preferred range of 5.4 to 6.1. Our preferred magnitude is derived from comparisons with intensity distributions from the 1925 M W = 6.2 Charlevoix, the 1944 M W = 5.8 Massena, and the 1968 M W = 5.3 southern Illinois earthquakes, which we also revisited in this study. Based on the distribution of liquefaction, reports of damage, and early aftershocks, we also explore possible rupture scenarios for the 1895 earthquake. Our preferred scenario involves unilateral rupture to the northeast on a (reactivated) northeast-striking fault (or faults) coinciding with structures associated with the western limb of the Reelfoot Rift, with an epicenter south-southeast of Charleston, Missouri. Our results support the conclusion that, within the Reelfoot Rift, elevated seismic hazard is not restricted to the New Madrid Seismic Zone (NMSZ) as conventionally defined but continues into the Charleston region in southeastern Missouri where faults associated with the western edge of the Reelfoot Rift appear favorably oriented for failure in the current stress regime.
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Bathymetric contour map, surface area and capacity table, and bathymetric change map for Sugar Creek Lake near Moberly, Missouri, 2018
Managers of water-supply lakes need an accurate estimate of the lake capacity to ensure that enough water is available for uses such as: providing consistent recreation pool levels, preserving downstream aquatic habitat, flood abatement, water supply, and power generation. Lake capacity is particularly important for managers of water-supply lakes during periods of drought, unexpected population growth, or exceptionally high water use in the area supplied by the lake. Sedimentation, primarily from runoff into the lake, will cause a loss of storage capacity as a lake ages; as a result, the capacity table for the lake (if one exists) will overestimate the actual capacity. Lake bathymetric changes can be demonstrated through periodic surveying, and rates of sediment accumulation can be calculated so that managers can better regulate the water supply. The U. S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Missouri Department of Natural Resources, completed a bathymetric survey of Sugar Creek Lake in December 2003. Sugar Creek Lake, constructed in 1922, is about 4 miles northwest of Moberly, Missouri, in Randolph County and has a surface area of about 330 acres at the spillway elevation of 746.8 feet. The lake primarily is used for recreation and drinking-water supply for the town of Moberly, Missouri. In September 2018, the U. S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Missouri Department of Natural Resources and the City of Moberly, Missouri, surveyed the bathymetry of Sugar Creek Lake to prepare an updated bathymetric map and a surface area and capacity table. The 2003 survey was compared with the 2018 survey to document the changes in the bathymetric surface. The comparison found that in the 14.7 years between the two surveys the lake had lost 230 acre-feet of capacity and had an average sediment accumulation of 0.96 feet.
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Quality of surface water in Missouri, water year 2017
The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Missouri Department of Natural Resources, designed and operates a network of monitoring stations on streams and springs throughout Missouri known as the Ambient Water-Quality Monitoring Network. During water year 2017 (October 1, 2016, through September 30, 2017), data presented in this report were collected at 72 stations: 70 Ambient Water-Quality Monitoring Network stations and 2 U.S. Geological Survey National Stream Quality Assessment Network stations. Among the 72 stations in this report, 4 stations have data presented from additional sampling performed in cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Summaries of the concentrations of dissolved oxygen, specific conductance, water temperature, suspended solids, suspended sediment, Escherichia coli bacteria, fecal coliform bacteria, dissolved nitrate plus nitrite as nitrogen, total phosphorus, dissolved and total recoverable lead and zinc, and selected pesticide compounds are presented. Most of the stations have been classified based on the physiographic province or primary land use in the watershed represented by the station. Some stations have been classified based on the unique hydrology of the waterbodies they monitor. A summary of hydrologic conditions in the State including peak streamflows, monthly mean streamflows, and 7-day low flows also are presented.
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The Missouri groundwater-level observation network
The Missouri groundwater-level observation well network is a series of wells across the State of Missouri in which groundwater levels are monitored in real time and periodically. The wells monitor the water levels in multiple key aquifers, such as the Ozark aquifer in the Salem and Springfield Plateaus and the Mississippi Alluvial Plain aquifer in the South-eastern Lowlands. As of 2018, 150 real-time sites are operated as a cooperative effort between the Missouri Department of Natural Resources (MoDNR) and the U.S. Geological Survey. This fact sheet describes the network and well data from the network.
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Flood-inundation maps of the Meramec River from Eureka to Arnold, Missouri, 2018
Libraries of digital flood-inundation maps that spanned a combined 37.2-mile reach of the Meramec River that extended upstream from Eureka, Missouri, to downstream near the confluence of the Meramec and Mississippi Rivers were created by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Metropolitan St. Louis Sewer District, Missouri Department of Transportation, Missouri American Water, Federal Emergency Management Agency Region 7, and the cities of Pacific, Eureka, Wildwood, and Arnold. The flood-inundation maps, which can be accessed through the USGS Flood Inundation Mapping Science website at https://water.usgs.gov/osw/flood_inundation/ , depict estimates of the areal extent and depth of flooding corresponding to selected water levels (stages) at the cooperative USGS streamgages for the Meramec River near Eureka, Mo. (USGS station 07019000), the Meramec River at Valley Park, Mo. (USGS station 07019130), the Meramec River at Fenton, Mo. (USGS station 07019210), and the Meramec River at Arnold, Mo. (USGS station 07019300). Near-real-time stage data at these streamgages may be obtained from the USGS National Water Information System at https://doi.org/10.5066/F7P55KJN or the National Weather Service (NWS) Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Service at https://water.weather.gov/ahps/ , which also forecasts flood hydrographs at these sites (listed as NWS sites erkm7, vllm7, fnnm7, and arnm7, respectively). Flood profiles were computed for the stream reach by means of a calibrated one-dimensional step-backwater hydraulic model. The model was calibrated using a stage-discharge relation at the Meramec River near Eureka, Mo., streamgage (USGS station 07019000) and documented high-water marks from the flood of December 2015 through January 2016. The calibrated hydraulic model was used to compute water-surface profiles: 1 set for the Meramec River near Eureka, Mo., streamgage (USGS station 07019000); 1 set for the Meramec River at Valley Park, Mo., streamgage (USGS station 07019130); 7 sets for the Meramec River at Fenton, Mo., streamgage (USGS station 07019210) for a range of Mississippi River conditions; and 8 sets for the Meramec River at Arnold, Mo., streamgage (USGS station 07019300) for a range of Mississippi River conditions. The water-surface profiles were produced for stages at 1-foot (ft) intervals referenced to the datum from each streamgage and ranging from the NWS action stage, or near bankfull discharge, to the stage corresponding to the estimated 0.2-percent annual exceedance probability (500-year recurrence interval) flood, as determined at the Meramec River near Eureka, Mo., streamgage (USGS station 07019000). The simulated water-surface profiles then were combined with a geographic information system digital elevation model (derived from light detection and ranging data having a 0.28-ft vertical accuracy and 3.28-ft horizontal resolution) to delineate the area flooded at each simulated 1-ft stage increment. Previously published flood-inundation maps were updated and incorporated in the flood map libraries for USGS stations 07019130 and 07019210 to complete the map sets corresponding to eight Mississippi River conditions. The availability of these maps, along with internet information regarding current stage from the USGS streamgages and forecasted high-flow stages from the NWS, will provide emergency management personnel and residents with information that is critical for flood response activities such as evacuations and road closures and for postflood recovery efforts.
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Life history of the endemic saddleback crayfish, Faxonius medius (Faxon, 1884), (Decapoda: Cambaridae) in Missouri, USA
The saddleback crayfish, Faxonius medius (Faxon, 1884), is endemic to a single drainage in eastern Missouri, USA, that is affected by heavy metals mining, and adjacent to a rapidly-expanding urban area. We studied populations of F. medius in two small streams for 18 months to describe the annual reproductive cycle and gather information about fecundity, sex ratio, size at maturity, and size-class structure. We also obtained information about the species’ density at supplemental sites. The species, though rare in a geographic context, is locally abundant; we captured a monthly average of more than 75 F. medius from each of the two study populations. Densities of F. medius were high relative to several sympatric species of Faxonius Cope, 1872 and Cambarus Erichson, 1846. The species exhibited traits of an r-strategist life history; it was relatively short-lived and early to maturity. Its fecundity and egg size were comparable to Ozark congeners. Breeding season occurred in autumn, perhaps extending into early winter. Egg brooding occurred primarily in April. Young of year first appeared in samples in June. We estimated that these populations contained 2 to 3 size-classes, and most individuals became sexually mature in their first year of life. Life history information presented herein will be important for future conservation efforts.
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The influence of depth and velocity on age-0 Scaphirhynchus sturgeon prey consumption: Implications for aquatic habitat restoration
After the pallid sturgeon ( Scaphirhynchus albus ) was listed as endangered in 1990, a variety of management actions focusing on early life history needs have been implemented to aid species recovery. Given the scarcity of age-0 pallid sturgeon, managers and scientists have relied on sympatric congeners to evaluate the effectiveness of management actions in the short term; however, increased understanding of habitat requirements for age-0 Scaphirhynchus sturgeon is still needed to appropriately focus management efforts. Recently, a lack of food-producing and foraging habitats were proposed as potential limiting factors for pallid sturgeon, and the purpose of this study was to evaluate the current definition of these habitats at multiple spatial scales using data from age-0 Scaphirhynchus sturgeon (shovelnose sturgeon [ Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus ] or hybrid [shovelnose sturgeon x pallid sturgeon]). Results showed the water depths and velocities that currently define age-0 pallid sturgeon foraging habitat had little effect on age-0 Scaphirhynchus sturgeon prey consumption. Similar results occurred when evaluating the relationship between prey consumption and food-producing habitat present 10, 20, and 30 days before capture. Assuming that individuals captured during this study were a valid surrogate, these results suggest that increasing foraging and food-producing habitat as defined by the current depth and velocity criteria is unlikely to result in the desired benefits of increased growth and survival of age-0 pallid sturgeon.
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Evaluating tradeoffs in the response of Sora (Porzana carolina) and waterfowl to the timing of early autumn wetland inundation
Wetland loss has increased the importance of multi-species management in remaining wetlands, which provide habitat for a multitude of wetland-dependent species. Many public wetlands across the mid-latitude United States are managed as moist soil impoundments with emphasis on migratory waterfowl. However, how the timing of these water management decisions affects rails is still uncertain. Wetland managers identified this as an area of uncertainty regarding timing of alternative water management strategies to benefit waterfowl and rails, which was addressed through a 3-year management experiment. Sora ( Porzana carolina ) and waterfowl were surveyed on 10 public wetland properties in Missouri, USA from 2014-2016, and their responses to early autumn inundation of managed palustrine wetlands were compared. A total of 558 Sora surveys detected 5,755 birds (20.6 birds/survey ± 30.8 SD), and 1,304 waterfowl surveys detected 1,411,779 birds (15,686.4 birds/survey ± 23,933.9 SD). Sora responded positively (birds/ha) to inundation of moist soil impoundments earlier in autumn migration (August). The top model for Sora included treatment, year and region of Missouri. There was no difference in waterfowl abundance between early or late inundation. Inundating wetlands earlier in autumn migration can provide habitat for migrating Sora without negative effects on waterfowl use of those wetlands, and wetland managers can incorporate this into their decision-making framework.
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