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At least 163 records · Page 9Linked to original sources
USGS2006

Geologic Map of the Edwards Aquifer In Northern Medina and Northeastern Uvalde Counties, South-central Texas

The southern segment of the Edwards aquifer in south-central Texas is one of the most productive subsurface reservoirs of potable water in the world, providing water of excellent quality to more than a million people in the San Antonio region, where the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has declared it to be a sole-source aquifer (van der Leeden and others, 1990). Depending on the depositional province within which the associated carbonate rocks originated (Maclay and Small, 1984), the Edwards aquifer is composed of several geologic formations (primarily limestone and dolostone) of Early Cretaceous age. Most water pumped from the Edwards aquifer comes form the Person and Kainer Formations, which were deposited over the San Marcos Platform. The principal source of ground water in study area is the Devils River Formation, which was deposited in the Devils River trend. The Devils River Formation provides large quantities of irrigation water to fertile bottomland areas of Medina and Uvalde Counties, where the success of farming and ranching activities has long depended upon water from the Edwards aquifer. The study area includes all of the Edwards aquifer recharge zone between the Sabinal River (on the west) and the Medina River (on the east) plus an updip fringe of the confined zone in east-central Uvalde and central Medina Counties. Over about ninety percent of the study area--within the Devils River trend--the Edwards aquifer is composed of the Georgetown Formation plus the underlying Devils River Formation. Over the remaining area--over the southwestern margin of the San Marcos platform--the Edwards aquifer consists of the Georgetown Formation plus the underlying Edwards Group (Rose, 1972), which comprises the Kainer and Person Formations.

Open-File Report↗
USGS1978

Ground-water resources and geology of Columbia County, Wisconsin

The increasing need for water of good Quality in Columbia County, caused by a steadily increasing population, can be met from the sand-and-gravel and sandstone aquifers. As much as 15 gallons per minute can be obtained from wells almost everywhere. Yields of more than 1,000 gallons per minute are available from drift where it contains a sufficient thickness of saturated sand and gravel (the sand-and-gravel aquifer). The sandstone aquifer underlies nearly all the county except for areas west of the Wisconsin River and northwest of Pardeeville. It is more than 700 feet thick in the south-central part. The sandstone aquifer includes all bedrock younger than Precambrian age and is capable of yielding more than 1,000 gallons per minute to wells in about three-fourths of the county. It is the principal source of municipal-water supply. The chemical quality of water from the two aquifers is similar. It is very hard (mean concentration of about 300 milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate), and much of it contains excessive amounts of iron and manganese. Concentrations of dissolved solids and chloride are higher in areas underlain by bedrock of Ordovician age than elsewhere. About 5.0 million gallons per day of water was pumped in the county in 1974, 90 percent from the sandstone aQuifer. About 45 percent of the total water pumped was for industrial and commercial purposes~ 37 percent was for residential use, 16 percent for municipal use, and 2 percent for irrigation.

Wisconsin↗
USGS1951

Selected abstracts on engineering geology and related subjects

Interlayered sand, silt, and clay of middle Eocene to late Paleocene age in east-central Georgia form the Gordon aquifer system which ranges in thickness from about 20 to 180 ft. Estimated transmissivities range from 620 to 13,000 sq ft/day. During 1980, approximately 24 million gpd (gallons per day) was withdrawn from the Gordon aquifer system, of which about 70% was used for irrigation. Water levels in the aquifer throughout the study area generally showed little change during 1934-68; however, during 1969-81, local declines as great as 33 ft have occurred in areas of increased irrigation or large scale municipal and industrial pumping. The Gordon aquifer system is recharged by precipitation in the outcrop area and in interstream drainage divides in and near the outcrop area, and by leakage through adjacent confining units. Discharge from the aquifer occurs predominantly as flow into streams or as leakage into underlying and overlying units. Water from the Gordon aquifer system is generally a calcium bicarbonate type that ranges from soft to hard, and in most areas has constituent concentrations that are within the Georgia Environmental Protection Division recommended drinking water standards. (Author 's abstract)

Circular↗
USGS2019

Groundwater and surface-water resources near Red Fleet Reservoir, Uintah County, Utah

Red Fleet Reservoir in Uintah County, Utah, is an approximately 26,000 acre-foot (acre-ft) on-channel reservoir in the Big Brush Creek drainage on the south slopes of the Uinta Mountains. It is operated primarily for irrigation needs while providing a supplemental drinking-water supply to the Vernal, Utah area. Red Fleet Reservoir, which was operated by the Bureau of Reclamation and the Uintah Water Conservancy District through 2015, began storing water in May 1980. The reservoir is on southward dipping Mesozoic lithologies ranging from Jurassic to Cretaceous in age. The Nugget and Frontier Sandstone aquifers are the targeted units in this investigation, which is to characterize groundwater conditions that exist in each sandstone aquifer and how they interact with Red Fleet Reservoir. Groundwater levels were measured in six wells and one spring in the Nugget Sandstone and the Frontier Sandstone aquifers. Water levels in the Nugget Sandstone aquifer were 35–70 feet above the maximum stage of Red Fleet Reservoir on the west and east banks. Water levels in the Frontier Sandstone aquifer were 15–30 feet below the observed stage of Red Fleet Reservoir on the west bank during the study period. A water budget was calculated for Red Fleet Reservoir between May 1980 and December 2015. During this period, 1,050,000 acre-ft of water from Big Brush Creek discharged into the reservoir, while 993,000 acre-ft of water was released downstream of Red Fleet Dam. Total evaporation from May 1980 through December 2015 was about 52,000 acre-ft, while total precipitation over the same period was about 12,000 acre-ft. From May 1980 through December 2015, the total pumped volume of water from the Tyzack Pump Station, at the base of Red Fleet Dam, was about 42,000 acre-ft. Total groundwater discharge to Red Fleet Reservoir from 1980 through 2015 was about 40,000 acre-ft. Water was sampled from four wells and from the inflow arm of Red Fleet Reservoir, and analyzed for major-ion chemistry, select trace metals, nutrients, and environmental tracers. Water sampled from the Nugget Sandstone aquifer yielded good-quality water with dissolved-solids concentrations of less than 200 milligram per liter, and no trace elements above the Environmental Protection Agency drinking-water standards. Water sampled from the Frontier Sandstone aquifer yielded poor-quality water with dissolved-solids concentrations of about 2,150 milligrams per liter with trace elements approaching drinking-water standards for arsenic. Dissolved noble gases used to identify recharge elevations and temperatures for groundwater indicate that water in the Nugget Sandstone aquifer likely recharged at a high altitude and low temperature, and not locally because of interaction with Red Fleet Reservoir. The Frontier Sandstone aquifer is likely recharged at low elevation and at temperatures similar to those observed at Red Fleet Reservoir.

Utah↗
USGS1990

Hydrology and land use in Grand Traverse County, Michigan

Glacial deposits are the sole source of ground-water supplies in Grand Traverse County. These deposits range in thickness from 100 to 900 feet and consist of till, outwash, and materials of lacustrine and eolian origin. In some areas, the deposits fill buried valleys that are 500 feet deep. Sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic age, which underlie the glacial deposits, are mostly shale and are not used for water supply. Of the glacial deposits, outwash and lacustrine sand are the most productive aquifers. Most domestic wells obtain water from sand and gravel at depths ranging from 50 to 150 feet and yield at least 20 gallons per minute. Irrigation, municipal, and industrial wells capable of yielding 250 gallons per minute or more are generally greater than 150 feet deep. At places in the county where moranial deposits contain large amounts of interbedded silt and clay, wells are generally deeper and yields are much lower. Areal variations in the chemical and physical characteristics of ground and surface water are related to land use and chemical inputs to the hydrologic system. Information on fertilizer application, septic-tank discharges, animal wastes, and precipitation indicate that 40 percent of nitrogen input is from precipitation, 6 percent from septic tanks, 14 percent from animal wastes, and 40 percent from fertilizers. Streams and lakes generally have a calcium bicarbonate-type water. The dissolved-solids concentration of streams ranged from 116 to 380 milligrams per liter, and that of lakes, from 47 to 170 milligrams per liter. Water of streams is hard to very hard; water of lakes ranges from soft to hard. The maximum total nitrogen concentration found in streams was 4.4 milligrams per liter. Water of lakes have low nitrogen concentrations; the median nitrate concentration is less than 0.01 milligrams per liter. Pesticides (Parathion and Simazine) were detected in low concentrations at six stream sites; 2,4-D was detected in low concentrations in water of two lakes. Relationships between land use and the yield of dissolved and suspended substances could not be established for most stream basins. Calcium and bicarbonate are the principal dissolved substances in ground water. Dissolved-solids concentrations ranged from 70 to 700 milligrams per liter; the countywide mean concentration is 230 milligrams per liter. The mean nitrate concentration is 1.3 milligrams per liter; about 1.6 percent of the county's ground water has nitrate concentrations that exceed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's maximum drinking water level of 10 milligrams per liter. An effect of fertilizer applications on ground-water quality is evident in some parts of the county.

Michigan↗
USGS2002

Geology and hydrogeology of the Caribbean Islands aquifer system of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands

Poorly lithified to unconsolidated carbonate and clastic sedimentary rocks of Tertiary (Oligocene to Pliocene) and Quaternary (Pleistocene to Holocene) age compose the South Coast aquifer and the North Coast limestone aquifer system of Puerto Rico; poorly lithified to unlithified carbonate rocks of late Tertiary (early Miocene to Pliocene) age make up the Kingshill aquifer of St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. The South Coast aquifer, North Coast limestone aquifer system, and Kingshill aquifer are the most areally extensive and function as the major sources of ground water in the U.S. Caribbean Islands Regional Aquifer-System Analysis (CI-RASA) study area. In Puerto Rico's South Coast ground-water province, more than 1,000 meters of clastic and carbonate rocks of Oligocene to Pliocene age infill the South Coast Tertiary Basin. The pattern of lithofacies within this basin appears to have been controlled by changes in base level that were, at times, dominated by tectonic movement (uplift and subsidence), but were also influenced by eustasy. Deposition of the 70-kilometer long and 3- to 8-kilometer wide fan-delta plain that covers much of the South Coast ground-water province occurred largely in response to glacially-induced changes in sea level and climate during the Quaternary period. Tectonic movement played a much less important role during the Quaternary. The North Coast ground-water province of Puerto Rico is underlain by homoclinal coastal plain wedge of carbonate and siliciclastic rocks that infill the North Coast Tertiary Basin and thicken to more than 1,700 meters. A thin basal siliciclastic sequence of late Oligocene age is overlain by a thick section of mostly carbonate rocks of Oligocene to middle Miocene age. Globigerinid limestone of late Miocene to Pliocene age crops out and lies in the shallow subsurface areas of northwestern Puerto Rico. Oligocene to middle Miocene age rocks tentatively can be divided into five depositional sequences and associated systems tracts; these rocks record carbonate and minor siliciclastic deposition that occurred in response to changes in relative sea level. The Cibao Formation represents the most complex of these sequences and contains a varied facies of carbonate, mixed carbonate-siliciclastic, and siliciclastic rocks that reflect differential uplift, subsidence, and transgression of the sea. Uplift, graben formation, and gradual shallowing of the sea are reflected within the bathyal-dominated sedimentary facies of the Kingshill Limestone in St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Reef-tract limestone beds of Pliocene age were subject to exposure, resubmergence, and meteoric leaching of aragonitic skeletal debris; these beds contain patchy lenses of dolomite that are restricted to a small, structurally-controlled embayment. The South Coast aquifer, the principal water-bearing unit of Puerto Rico's South Coast ground-water province, consists of boulder- to silt-size detritus formed by large and small coalescing fan deltas of Pleistocene to Holocene age. Deep well data indicates that it is possible to vertically separate and group a highly complex and irregular-bedded detrital sequence that underlies distal parts of the fan-delta plain into discrete water-bearing units if correlated with 30- to 40-meter thick, eustatically-controlled depositional cycles. Lithofacies maps show that greatest hydraulic conductivity within the fan-delta plain is generally associated with proximal fan and midfan areas. Distal and interfan areas are least permeable. Alluvial valley aquifers located in the western part of the South Coast ground-water province are important local sources of water supply and appear to contain some of the same physical and hydraulic characteristics as the South Coast aquifer. Older sedimentary rocks within the basin are poor aquifers; conglomeratic beds are well-cemented, and carbonate beds do not contain well-developed solution features, except locally where the beds are overlain by alluvium. Ground-water occurs under unconfined conditions in proximal and midfan areas. Confined conditions within deeper parts of the system and in interfan and some midfan areas are created largely by the intercalated nature of discontinuous fine-grained beds that retard vertical ground-water movement. The development of water resources in southern Puerto Rico has modified the hydrologic system of the South Coast aquifer considerably. Under predevelopment conditions, the South Coast aquifer was recharged in the unconfined, proximal fan and some midfan areas by infrequent rainfall and seepage from streams near the fan apex. Discharge occurred as seabed seepage, baseflow discharge along the lower coastal reach of streams, seepage to coastal wetlands, or evapotranspiration in areas underlain by a shallow water table. Under development conditions, seepage from irrigation canals and areal recharge from furrow irrigation represented a principal mechanism for recharge to the aquifer. Increased ground-water withdrawals in the 1960's and 1970's resulted in declines in the water table to below sea level in some places and intrusion of salt water into the aquifer. By the middle 1980's, a reduction in ground-water withdrawals and a shift from furrow irrigation to drip-irrigation techniques resulted in the recovery of water levels. Under present-day (1986) conditions, regional ground-water flow is coastward but with local movement to some well fields. In addition to the discharge mechanisms described above, ground-water discharges also to coastal canals. The North Coast limestone aquifer system consists of limestone, lesser amounts of dolomite, and minor clastic detritus of Oligocene to Pliocene age that form an unconfined upper aquifer and a confined lower aquifer; these aquifers are separated by a clay, mudstone, and marl confining unit. Topographic relief and incision of carbonate coastal plain rocks by streams are the principal factors controlling the direction of ground-water flow. The North Coast limestone aquifer system is recharged principally by precipitation that enters the upper and lower aquifers where they crop out. Regional groundwater movement from the upper aquifer is to the major rivers, wells, coastal wetlands, coastal, nearshore, and offshore springs, or as seabed seepage. Regional discharge from the lower aquifer is to the major rivers along its unconfined parts or where the confining unit has been breached by streams. Discharge from the lower aquifer also occurs in the San Juan area where the Mucarabones Sand provides an avenue for diffuse upward ground-water flow. Transmissivity within the upper limestone aquifer appears to be largely regulated by the thickness of the freshwater lens. The lens is thickest and transmissivity is greatest in interstream areas that lie in a zone that closely corresponds to the landwardmost extent of the underlying saltwater wedge. Hydraulic conductivity of the upper aquifer generally increases in a coastward direction and reflects lithologic control, karstification in the upper 30 to 100 meters of the section, and enhanced permeability in a zone of freshwater and saltwater mixing. Transmissivity of the lower aquifer is an order of magnitude smaller than that of the upper aquifer; highest transmissivities in the lower aquifer largely correspond to a coarse grainstone-packstone and coral-patch-reef depositional facies contained within the outcropping parts of the Montebello Limestone Member and its subsurface equivalents. Porosity within the North Coast limestone aquifer system is high in grainstone-packstones and low in wackestone and marl. Dolomitized zones and moldic grainstone-packstone strata are the most porous carbonate rocks, but occur in thin beds that usually are only a few meters thick. Processes of karstification that include the development of caverous zones and large vugs, and dissolution along possible regional fracture sets has enhanced permeability within the upper part of the aquifer system. Stratigraphic and lithologic control play an important role controlling permeability within the lower part of the system. The Kingshill aquifer of St. Croix, in large part, is composed of deepwater limestone that contains only microscopic pores and is poorly permeable; however, the upper part of the aquifer, a shallow-water skeletal and reef limestone, is fairly permeable, but restricted in areal extent. Permeability within these uppermost beds of the aquifer has been enhanced by meteoric leaching, dissolution within a mixing zone of saltwater and fresh water, and dolomitization. However, most large-yield wells completed in the Kingshill aquifer are also screened in alluvium that overlies or infills incised channels. The alluvial deposits serve as a temporary storage zone for rainfall, runoff, and ground water slowly entering the Kingshill aquifer.

Puerto Rico↗
USGS1942

General geology and ground-water resources of the island of Maui, Hawaii

Maui, the second largest island in the Hawaiian group, is 48 miles long, 26 miles wide, and covers 728 square miles. The principal town is Wailuku. Sugar cane and pineapples are the principal crops. Water is used chiefly for irrigating cane. The purpose of the investigation was to study the geology and the ground-water resources of the island. Maui was built by two volcanoes. East Maui or Haleakala Volcano is 10,025 feet high and famous for its so-called crater, which is a section of Hawaii National Park. Evidence is given to show that it is the head of two amphitheater-headed valleys in which numerous secondary eruptions have occurred and that it is not a crater, caldera, or eroded caldera. West Maui is a deeply dissected volcano 5,788 feet high. The flat Isthmus connecting the two volcanoes was made by lavas from East Maui banking against the West Maui Mountains. Plate 1 shows the geology, wells, springs, and water-development tunnels. Plate 2 is a map and description of points of geologic interest along the main highways. Volcanic terms used in the report are briefly defined. A synopsis of the climate is included and a record of the annual rainfall at all stations is given also. Puu Kukui, on West Maui, has an average annual rainfall of 389 inches and it lies just six miles from Olowalu where only 2 inches of rain fell in 1928, the lowest ever recorded in the Hawaiian Islands. The second rainiest place in the Territory is Kuhiwa Gulch on East Maui where 523 inches fell during 1937. Rainfall averages 2,360 million gallons daily on East Maui and 580 on West Maui. Ground water at the point of use in months of low rainfall is worth about $120 per million gallons, which makes most undeveloped supplies valuable. The oldest rocks on East Maui are the very permeable primitive Honomanu basalts, which were extruded probably in Pliocene and early Pleistocene time from three rift zones. These rocks form a dome about 8,000 feet high and extend an unknown distance below sea level. Covering this dome are the Kula volcanics, extruded probably in early and middle Pleistocene time, and characterized by andesites, andesitic basalts, and picritic basalts. They are 2.000 feet thick on the summit and 50 to 200 feet thick at the periphery. They contain a sufficient number of interbedded soils, thin vitric tuff beds, and lava-filled valleys in their upper part to give rise to valuable perched springs in wet areas. The Kula lavas accumulated during a waning volcanic phase which was followed by a quiescence long enough for the erosion of deep amphitheater-headed valleys in the east or wet half of the mountain. Volcanic activity was renewed in middle (?) to late Pleistocene time and continued until Recent time, during which the Hana volcanic series was laid down. The last lava flow was erupted about 1750. The Hana lavas comprise andesitic, picritic, and olivine basalts. They veneered large areas of the east and south slopes, partly filled the deep amphitheater-headed valleys, and deeply buried the smaller valleys in the eastern half of the mountain. The Hana rocks are exceedingly permeable and much rain sinks into them. The oldest rocks on West Maui are the very permeable primitive Wailuku basalts, which were extruded probably in Pliocene and early Pleistocene time from two rifts and from many radial fissures. The basalts form a dome about 5,600 feet high and extend an unknown distance below sea level. Iao Valley is the eroded caldera of this dome. Forming an incomplete veneer over the dome are the Honolua soda trachytes and oligoclase andesites. They were extruded in late Pliocene (?) or early Pleistocene time, chiefly from bulbous domes. The clinker beds carry some water but the rocks are generally too dense to be good aquifers. During early (?) Pleistocene the West Maui volcano was cut by deep amphitheater-headed valleys and then all of Maui was deeply submerged. Four scattered eruptions occurred on West Maui in middle (?) and late Pleistocene time. The cones and lavas cover only small areas and are called the Lahaina volcanic series. The sedimentary rocks of both East and West Maui are chiefly late Quaternary and comprise fans, landslide debris, delta deposits, and valley fills, mostly of poorly permeable and poorly assorted bouldery alluvium. They are overlain on the Isthmus by extensive calcareous dunes of three ages. A mud flow more than 300 feet thick is exposed in Kaupo Valley. During the fluctuations of the ocean in the Pleistocene, the island was emerged and submerged several times. Calcareous fossiliferous marine conglomerates deposited during this period are found up to an altitude of 250 feet on West Maui. The Homomanu, Wailuku, and Kula lavas are the chief aquifers. They supply 28 irrigation wells which yield an average of 170 million gallons a day of basal water. These wells are mine-like shafts with infiltration tunnels and are called Maui-type wells. Well 16 yields 40,000,000 gallons daily with a 22-foot drawdown, which is the largest amount yielded by any well in the Hawaiian Islands. The largest spring (no. 26) on the island is artesian. It yields 10,400,000 gallons daily and issues from Kula lavas near Nahiku. West Maui has numerous perennial streams supplied by springs from a dike complex. Twenty-three tunnels in West Maui recover 20.5 million gallons a day of high-level water, mostly from this dike complex. East Maui has few perennial streams in proportion to its size, and they are chiefly small due to the water sheds being underlain with permeable lavas. Forty tunnels recover 6 million gallons a day of high-level water in East Maui and all from structures other than dikes. It is estimated that about 100 million gallons a day of basal water wastes into the sea from West Maui and about 700 million gallons a day from East Maui. A number of sites are described where wells could be sunk to recover this water. Sites are also described where tunnels could be driven to recover high-level supplies. The hydrology of East and West Maui is conspicuously different in many respects, mainly because of the difference in the stage of dissection, the extensive veneer of very permeable Hann lavas on East Maui, and the comparatively small area of the Lahaina lavas of similar age on West Maui. The only thermal water known in the Hawaiian Islands, except on the active volcano of Kilauea, is in a well in West Maui. The Nahiku area has been mapped and studied in detail. The upper part of the Honomanu volcanic series, exposed in the sea cliffs, in petrographic character is transitional into the overlying Kula lavas, Kula and Hana time were characterized by a long succession of valley-cutting episodes, each valley being filled by lava erupted from the east rift zone. The lavas include olivine basalts, picritic basalts, and basaltic andesites, In the Nahiku area basal ground water occurs largely in the Honomanu basalts. Perched water occurs in many of the later lavas, generally following the axes of buried valleys. The members which perch the water are mostly ashy soil beds, although an unusually extensive, thick layer of much decomposed clinker also appears to be a supporting member. Most of the water travels through the basal clinker members of aa lavas. Artesian water is encountered in the upper, transitional part of the Honomanu volcanic series. The aquifer is permeable porphyritic pahoehoe; the confining members are relatively impermeable nonporphyritic aa. The lavas of East Maui are described according to stratigraphic groups. The oldest or Honomanu lavas are olivine basalts like the primitive lavas in other Hawaiian volcanoes. The later or Kula and Hana lavas include basalts, basaltic andesites, andesites, and picritic basalts. The normative nepheline of analyzed East Maui lavas has not been identified in the mode. The degree of differentiation is inversely proportional to the frequency of eruptions. The lavas of West Maui volcano are divided into the Wailuku volcanic series, consisting largely of olivine basalts with less abundant olivine-poor basalts, hypersthene basalts, and picritic basalts; the Honolua volcanic series, consisting of oligoclase andesites and soda trachytes; and the Lahaina volcanic series, consisting of nepheline basanite and picritic basalts. Coarse-grained gabbros intrude the Wailuku lavas. Differentiation was undoubtedly partly by crystal settling, but the alkali curves of the variation diagram suggest that volatile transfer was of some importance.

Hawaii↗
USGS1951

Ground-water resources of the Paintrock irrigation project, Wyoming, with a section on the quality of the water

The ground-water conditions of the area covered by the Paintrock irrigation project, in north-central Wyoming, were investigated during the summer of 1947. The purpose of the study was to obtain a general evaluation of ground-water recharge, discharge, and storage in the area now irrigated and in the adjacent areas where additional lands are to be irrigated. Much of the area covered by this report consists of flat to gently sloping stream terraces and alluvial-bottoms along Nowood, Paintrock, and Medicine Lodge Creeks. The stream-terrace materials consist of fluviatile sand, clay, and gravel. The alluvium is very fine grained and in general has low permeability. The materials underlying the stream terraces and the bottomlands became progressively finer grained and less permeable downstream. The bedrock formations underlying the area studied range from the Madison limestone of Mississippian age to the Fort Union formation of Paleocene age. Beds have been folded into several prominent structures which trend northwest-southeast across the area. Several of the formations exposed in the area serve as aquifers and yield water to domestic and stock wells. The most important bedrock aquifers are the Fort Union, Lance, Meeteetee, Mesaverde, Frontier, Cloverly and Morrison formations , the Tensleep sandstone, the Amsden formation, and the Madison limestone. More than 7,000 feet of strata are exposed in the area, the older beds being exposed on the western flank of the Big Horn Range near the eastern end of the area. The quality of the water in the project ranges within wide limits. The concentration of dissolved solids in seven samples of ground water ranges from 279 parts per million for a water in the Tensleep sandstone to 4,590 parts per million for a water in the Morrison formation. The hardness as calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) ranges from 13 to 1,680 parts per million. Limited data on the quality of water in Nowood and Paintrock Creeks indicate that these waters are suitable for irrigation. The water in Paintrock Creek near Tensleep is higher in mineral content and hardness than the water upstream at Hyattville as a result of return flow of the irrigation water that is applied to farm lands above Tensleep.

Wyoming↗
USGS1964

Use of ground-water reservoirs for storage of surface water in the San Joaquin Valley, California

The San Joaquin Valley includes roughly the southern two-thirds of the Central Valley of California, extending 250 miles from Stockton on the north to Grapevine at the foot of the Tehachapi Mountains. The valley floor ranges in width from 25 miles near Bakersfield to about 55 miles near Visalia; it has a surface area of about 10,000 square miles. More than one-quarter of all the ground water pumped for irrigation in the United States is used in this highly productive valley. Withdrawal of ground water from storage by heavy pumping not only provides a needed irrigation water supply, but it also lowers the ground-water level and makes storage space available in which to conserve excess water during periods of heavy runoff. A storage capacity estimated to be 93 million acre-feet to a depth of 200 feet is available in this ground-water reservoir. This is about nine times the combined capacity of the existing and proposed surface-water reservoirs in the San Joaquin Valley under the California Water Plan. The landforms of the San Joaquin Valley include dissected uplands, low plains and fans, river flood plains and channels, and overflow lands and lake bottoms. Below the land surface, unconsolidated sediments derived from the surrounding mountain highlands extend downward for hundreds of feet. These unconsolidated deposits, consisting chiefly of alluvial deposits, but including some widespread lacustrine sediments, are the principal source of ground water in the valley. Ground water occurs under confined and unconfined conditions in the San Joaquin Valley. In much of the western, central, and southeastern parts of the valley, three distinct ground-water reservoirs are present. In downward succession these are 1) a body of unconfined and semiconfined fresh water in alluvial deposits of Recent, Pleistocene, and possibly later Pliocene age, overlying the Corcoran clay member of the Tulare formation; 2) a body of fresh water confined beneath the Corcoran clay member, which occurs in alluvial and lacustrine deposits of late Pliocene age or older; and 3) a body of saline connate water contained in marine sediments of middle Pliocene or older age, which underlies the fresh-water body throughout the area. In much of the eastern part of the valley, especially in the areas of the major streams, the Corcoran clay member is not present and ground water occurs as one fresh-water body to considerable depth. The ground-water body is replenished by infiltration of rainfall, by infiltration from streams, canals, and ditches, by underflow entering the valley from tributary stream canyons, and by infiltration of excess irrigation water. In much of the valley, however, the annual rainfall is so low that little penetrates deeply, and soil-moisture deficiency is perennial. Infiltration from stream channels and canals and from irrigated fields are the principal sources of groundwater recharge. The ground-water storage capacity of the San Joaquin Valley has been estimated in an earlier report (Davis and others, 1959) as 93 million acre-feet. This is the quantity of water that would drain by gravity from the valley deposits if the regional water level were lowered from 10 to 200 feet below the land surface. Storage capacity was estimated for only the part of the valley considered to be potentially usable as a ground-water reservoir. In this study, a 200foot depth was selected as a practical valley-wide depth limit for unwatering under full utilization of the ground-water reservoir, even though in localized areas sections in excess of 350 feet in depth have already been dewatered. Some of the factors that locally limit the utilization of the ground-water reservoir are inferior water quality, relatively impermeable surface soils, and relatively impermeable subsurface deposits. On the basis of a detailed analysis of la peg model, the subsurface geology of the San Joaquin Valley was subdivided into predominantly permeable and impermeable zones in the 1

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1972

The ground-water system in southeastern Laramie County, Wyoming

Increased development of irrigation wells in southeastern Laramie County, Wyo., has caused concern about the quantity of water available. Ground water from approximately 230 large-capacity wells is used to irrigate most of the 18,165 acres under irrigation. The purpose of this study is to provide more knowledge about the character of the aquifers, quantity of water in storage, rate of withdrawal, and the effect of withdrawals on streamflow. The area studied consists of about 400 square miles in southeastern Laramie County in the extreme southeast corner of Wyoming. The White River Formation of Oligocene age and alluvium of Quaternary age are the principal aquifers. The White River Formation is made up primarily of clay, silt, and fine sand. Secondary permeability in the White River Formation accounts for it being an important aquifer. The alluvium, which Includes terrace and flood-plain deposits, consists of sand and gravel that contain some lenses of silt and clay. Existence of secondary permeability in the White River Formation has been accepted for some time although the nature of the secondary permeability has been disputed. Examination of downhole conditions with a television camera during this study revealed openings in the formation that appeared to be similar to tubes or caverns. The openings were of various sizes and shapes but only a few appeared to be associated with fracturing. Solution activity in the formation probably is an important factor in the development of secondary permeability. The study area was divided into the Pine Bluffs-Egbert area and the Carpenter area. Ground-water movement in the Pine Bluffs-Egbert area is generally eastward into Nebraska; in the Carpenter area, movement is generally southward into Colorado. Pumpage from large-capacity wells in the Pine Bluffs-Egbert area was estimated to be about 21,790 acre-feet in 1971. Water levels exhibited a declining trend annually in some areas during the period of record. Data indicate that pumpage in the Pine Bluffs-Egbert area probably is the cause of decreased base flow in Lodgepole Creek since approximately 1961. Increased pumpage, above that in 1971, will result in further reduction of discharge of Lodgepole Creek into Nebraska. In the Carpenter area, it was estimated that the terrace deposit contained about 1 million acre-feet of saturated sediments in March 1971. The amount of ground water in storage in the White River Formation in this area is unknown. Pumpage from large-capacity wells in the Carpenter area was estimated to be about 7,090 acre-feet in 1971. Recharge to the area was not estimated but there was no indication of a net decline in water levels between September 1970 and September 1971.

Open-File Report↗
USGS1973

Ground water in the Eugene-Springfield area, southern Willamette Valley, Oregon

The cities of Eugene and Springfield and their outlying suburban and rural districts constitute an area of rapid population growth where progressively greater volumes of ground water are being required for irrigation and industrial and public supplies. The area is also one of diverse geologic and hydrologic conditions. As used in this report, the Eugene-Springfield area covers about 450 square miles and includes a part of the lower foothills of the Coast and Cascade Ranges and a strip of the main valley plain of the southern Willamette Valley. Volcanic and sedimentary rock units exposed in the foothills range in age from Eocene to Miocene. In the main valley plain the older units are overlain by Pleistocene and Holocene alluvial deposits. Marine-deposited sandstone, siltstone, shale, and mudstone of the older sedimentary units are fine grained and poorly permeable and yield water slowly to wells. The volcanic rocks, primarily of dacitic and andesitic composition, yield small quantities of water that are generally adequate only for domestic use. The alluvial deposits (sand and gravel) of the valley plain (central lowland) contain the most productive aquifers in the area and are considered to be the only ground-water reservoir for which large-scale development of ground-water supplies is feasible. Aquifers in the area are recharged principally by direct infiltration of precipitation. Most of the precipitation, which averages about 4C inches per year, occurs during late autumn and winter. Minimum recharge by infiltration of precipitation to the alluvial aquifers beneath the valley plain is estimated to be about 100,000 acre-feet. Ground water is discharged naturally from the central lowland by seepage and spring flow to small streams, by subsurface outflow to adjacent areas, and by evapotranspiration. Storage capacity of the central lowland in the Eugene-Springfield area is estimated to be about 2.1 million acre-feet in the zone 10-150 feet below land surface. The quantity of ground water available annually from this area is far greater than the 23,000 acre-feet pumped for all uses in 1968. This pumpage was about 23 percent of the perennial yield (100,000 acre-ft), and about 77,000 acre-feet of water was left available for additional withdrawal. If annual withdrawals of water were increased to 100,000 acre-feet per year, the levels in the ground-water reservoir would be lowered. Once new equilibriums are established, increased withdrawals could be accommodated without progressive losses in aquifer storage or excessive losses in flow of the larger streams. Ground water from the alluvial deposits of the valley plain is chemically suitable for irrigation and other uses, as is most of the water obtained from perched-water bodies in the sedimentary and volcanic rocks. However, the mineral content of water from the older sedimentary rocks, particularly from deeper producing zones, is greater than the mineral content of water from the alluvial deposits. Locally, some of the water from the older rocks is too saline for most uses. Increased use of ground water may result in certain problems pertaining to waste-disposal practices, local overdraft of aquifers, well interference, and well construction. Present data are adequate to evaluate some of the factors relating to foreseeable problems but allow only tentative conclusions to be drawn about other factors, which include local direction of flow, rate of ground-water movement, and areas of possible ground-water contamination. Additional information obtained through systematic study will be needed to deal with these problems.

Oregon↗
USGS1984

Potential effects of surface coal mining on the hydrology of the Circle West coal tracts, McCone County, eastern Montana

The Circle West coal tracts in McCone County, Montana, contain about 460 million tons of recoverable coal reserves. Estimates of coal reserves for the tract are based predominantly on the S coal bed, which averages about 16 ft in thickness. About 175 million tons, or 38%, of the recoverable coal is Federally owned and has been identified for potential lease sale. A hydrologic study has been conducted in the potential lease area to describe existing hydrologic systems and to assess potential effects of surface coal mining on local water resources. Geohydrologic data collected from wells and drill holes indicate that shallow aquifers exist in sandstone and coal beds of the Tongue River Member of the Fort Union Formation (Paleocene age). These shallow aquifers generally have small values of hydraulic conductivity (0.1 to 380 ft/day) and typically yield from 2 to 20 gal/min to stock and domestic wells. Where coal is extremely fractured or the thickness of saturated sandstone is large, some wells can yield in excess of 70 gal/min. Chemical analyses indicate that most shallow aquifers contain a sodium sulfate bicarbonate type water. Surface water resources of the area consist of intermittent streamflow in parts of the Nelson and Timber Creek basins plus a large network of reservoirs. The reservoirs provide a large part of the water supply for area livestock and irrigation. Water quality data for Nelson and Timber Creeks indicate that the water generally is a sodium sulfate type and has a large concentration (181 to 6,960 mg/L) of dissolved solids. Mining of the S coal bed in the Circle West coal tracts would permanently remove shallow coal and sandstone aquifers, resulting in the loss of shallow stock wells. Mining would destroy livestock reservoirs, alter runoff characteristics of Nelson Creek, and temporarily lower water levels in shallow aquifers near the mine. Leaching of soluble constituents from mine spoils may cause a long-term degradation of the quality of water in shallow aquifers in and near the coal tracts. Some of the effects on local water supplies could be mitigated by development of alternative water resources in deeper aquifers such as the Tullock aquifer of Paleocene age and the Fox Hills-lower Hell Creek aquifer of Late Cretaceous age. (Author 's abstract)

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗
USGS1966

Ground-water development in the high plains of Colorado, with a section on chemical quality of the ground water

The High Plains of Colorado includes all or part of 11 counties and has an area of about 9,500 square miles. The land surface slopes eastward and in most areas is gently rolling owing to erosion by ephemeral streams. The Ogallala Formation, of Pliocene age, is the principal aquifer. In pierces it is overlain by dune sand, alluvium, or loess. The Ogallala is semiconsolidated and consists of sand, gravel, silt, clay, and caliche. The Ogallala Formation is recharged by precipitation at a rate of about 0.85 inch per year. The water table slopes generally eastward. The major use of ground water is for irrigation. About 72,500 acre-feet of water was pumped from 428 wells to irrigate about 56,600 acres in 1962. Estimates of consumptive use made by the Blaney-Criddle method show that the optimum amount of water is being used to irrigate parts of the High Plains. At the end of the 1963 irrigation season, 525 irrigation wells each pumped more than 300 gallons per minute. Water levels decline as much as 10 feet in some places during the irrigation season but return almost to normal at the completion of pumping. By prorating transmissibility on the basis of lithologic descriptions from well logs, the average permeability of the Ogallala Formation in various places can be estimated. Most water from the Ogallala Formation in the High Plains is a calcium bicarbonate solution having a dissolved-solids content ranging from 100 to 600 parts per million. The water is generally hard; its calcium carbonate hardness ranges from 100 to 350 parts per million. Except for some ground water in the area south of the Cheyenne-Kiowa County line, the ground water analyzed was suitable for all uses.

Colorado↗
USGS2024

Dam removal cost databases and drivers

The United States (U.S.) has over 90,000 dams listed in the National Inventory of Dams that provide vital infrastructure to support water management for municipal and industrial uses including irrigation, hydropower, flood control, navigation, recreation, and habitat, among other uses (NID 2023). The Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) operate and maintain approximately 489 and 740 dams, respectively, as well as associated structures which provide flood risk management, navigation, water supply, hydropower, environmental stewardship, fish and wildlife conservation, and recreation benefits. As dams age, structural and operational maintenance investments increase until a time when decisions on whether to rehabilitate, replace, or decommission the dam need to be made. While most dams continue to provide important value even with maintenance requirements, at least 2,000 dams have been removed in the U.S. during the past 110 years, with an upward trend in the last few decades (American Rivers 2023). Decommissioning a dam may be considered when the purpose of the dam is no longer needed or other factors such as dam safety, fish passage, recreation safety, or river restoration goals take higher priority and are more economically feasible for the dam owner long-term. Dam safety programs, river restoration programs, and asset class management programs need cost estimating methods to consider dam decommissioning when appropriate. Traditional cost estimating approaches in planning stages focus mainly on dam removal construction and may leave out or have uncertainty on important complexities that can have substantial effects on total costs and be critical for project success. As the numbers of dam removal case studies increase, a growing set of cost data has become available (Duda et al. 2023a; Tullos and Bountry 2023; American Rivers 2022). However, total costs vary over five orders of magnitude for similar size dams, and it was unclear why. We evaluated three sets of cost data that had varying level of details regarding elements contributing to dam removal costs reported by project managers working on the dam removal studies and construction means and methods. We created planning-level cost estimating tools to assist with projects needing to consider the dam removal alternative: (1) new databases of case studies (Duda et al. 2023a; Tullos and Bountry 2023); (2) scoping questions to help determine if complexity cost drivers will be present; (3) machine learning based regression trees to estimate a potential cost range; and (4) a Computation Guide for Cost Estimating that can be used to inform discussions on potential dam removal cost items, quantities, and unit costs (appendix A). The collected data showed that dam height is important but is not a reliable predictor of the removal cost without considering other elements. However, knowing some basic characteristics about the average annual flow and geographic location of the dam site, in addition to dam size, can improve the ability to use past case studies for planning-level cost estimating. By additionally incorporating scoping questions related to sediment removal, mitigation, or other infrastructure, the likelihood of complexity cost drivers and the initial uncertainty of a cost estimate can be further reduced especially for small dams. Applying the Computation Guide for Cost Estimating requires more robust information but helps users reduce cost uncertainty. This step further refines the dam removal objective, removal approach (partial or full; phased or instantaneous), engineering design, construction means and methods, quantities, and unit costs, and results in a quantitative cost estimate.

Final Report↗
USGS2021

Middle Holocene hydrologic changes catalyzed by river avulsion in Big Soda Lake, Nevada, USA

Big Soda Lake is a 63 m deep, 1.6 km 2 maar lake in the Great Basin of Nevada, USA. Water level in the lake is controlled by groundwater inputs from the surrounding aquifer and the only surface water input is rainfall, which is negligible. A core taken in 2010 records an 8.75 m depositional history of the lake. A radiocarbon date on fossil pollen from 8.4 m below the sediment water interface (BSWI) of 14,740 (+1120/−825) cal yr BP suggests that the core may cover the latest Pleistocene and Holocene depositional history of the lake. Stable isotope values of oxygen and carbon (δ 18 O and δ 13 C) on authigenic calcite, diatom assemblages, and sedimentary structures all show consistent hydrological change from initially saline water at the bottom of the core to fresh/brackish water at about 6 m BWSI, back to saline water at 4.3 m. At 4.3 m depth, the bedding and color of the core change abruptly, and the stable- isotope and diatom assemblages indicate a consistently hypersaline lake until near the top of the core, when fresh water entered the lake due to irrigation and canal building in the twentieth century. The stable isotopes of the calcite abruptly change from inversely varying isotopic compositions below 4.3 m depth to covarying above. This break between relatively fresh and saline conditions in the lake occurs during the middle Holocene, although the exact timing of the transition is unknown due to variability in the 14 C age determinations. The cause for such an abrupt change is difficult to explain through climate shifts, as evidence suggests climate in the Great Basin was different from what the Big Soda Lake record indicates in the Early Holocene. It is hypothesized that the Walker River flowed to the Carson River basin before 5600 cal yr BP, with water either flowing directly into the lake or raising the groundwater table sufficiently to freshen Big Soda Lake. The initial increase in salinity likely was caused by decreased flow of the Walker River due to Middle Holocene aridity. The lake level lowered slowly, and more saline conditions prevailed until 4.3 m depth when water from the Walker River stopped flowing into the Carson River basin. Above 4.3 m depth, diatom and isotopic evidence indicates that the lake became consistently saline. The isotopic and diatom assemblage transitions observed in Big Soda Lake sediment are not consistent with climate reconstructions and demonstrate that hydrologic shifts in a basin can be an important driver of change regardless of climatic conditions. However, climate shifts may also play a role in the hydrologic changes by supplying more or less water to river courses that may induce river avulsion.

Nevada↗
USGS2017

Simulation of groundwater flow and pumping scenarios for 1900–2050 near Mount Pleasant, South Carolina

Groundwater withdrawals from the Upper Cretaceous-age Middendorf aquifer in South Carolina have created a large, regional cone of depression in the potentiometric surface of the Middendorf aquifer in Charleston and Berkeley Counties, South Carolina. Groundwater-level declines of as much as 249 feet have been observed in wells over the past 125 years and are a result of groundwater use for public water supply, irrigation, and private industry. To address the concerns of users of the Middendorf aquifer, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with Mount Pleasant Waterworks (MPW), recalibrated an existing groundwater-flow model to incorporate additional groundwater-use and water-level data since 2008. This recalibration process consisted of a technique of parameter estimation that uses regularized inversion and employs “pilot points” for spatial hydraulic property characterization. The groundwater-flow system of the Coastal Plain physiographic province of South Carolina and parts of Georgia and North Carolina was simulated using the U.S. Geological Survey finite-difference computer code MODFLOW-2000. After the model recalibration, the following six predictive water-management scenarios were created to simulate potential changes in groundwater flow and groundwater-level conditions in the Mount Pleasant, South Carolina, area: Scenario 1—maximize MPW reverse-osmosis plant capacity by increasing groundwater withdrawals from the Middendorf aquifer from 3.9 million gallons per day (Mgal/d), which was the amount withdrawn in 2015, to 8.58 Mgal/d; Scenario 2—same as Scenario 1, but with the addition of a 0.5 Mgal/d supply well in the Middendorf aquifer near Moncks Corner, South Carolina; Scenario 3—same as Scenario 1, but with the addition of a 1.5 Mgal/d supply well in the Middendorf aquifer near Moncks Corner, South Carolina; Scenario 4—maximize MPW well capacity by increasing withdrawals from the Middendorf aquifer from 3.9 Mgal/d (in 2015) to 10.16 Mgal/d; Scenario 5—minimize MPW surface-water purchase from the Charleston Water System by adding supply wells and increasing withdrawals from the Middendorf aquifer from 3.9 Mgal/d (in 2015) to 12.16 Mgal/d; and Scenario 6—same as Scenario 1, but with he addition of quarterly model stress periods to simulate seasonal variations in the groundwater withdrawals. Results from the simulations indicated further decline of groundwater levels creating cones of depressions near pumping wells in the Middendorf aquifer in the Mount Pleasant, South Carolina, area between 2015 and 2050 for all six scenarios. Simulation results from Scenario 1 showed an average decline of about 150 feet in the groundwater levels of the MPW production wells. Simulated hydrographs for two area observation wells illustrate the gradual decline in groundwater levels with overall changes in water-level altitudes of –92 and –33 feet, respectively. Simulated groundwater altitudes at a hypothetical observation well located in the MPW well field declined 121 feet between 2015 and 2050. Scenarios 2 and 3 have the same pumping rates as Scenario 1 for the MPW production wells; however, a single hypothetical pumping well was added in the Middendorf aquifer near the town of Moncks Corner, South Carolina. This hypothetical pumping well has a withdrawal rate of 0.5 Mgal/d for Scenario 2 and 1.5 Mgal/d for Scenario 3. A comparison to the 2050 Scenario 1 simulation indicates groundwater altitudes for Scenarios 2 and Scenario 3 are 3 feet and 8 feet lower, respectively, at the MPW production wells. Scenario 4 simulates the maximum pumping capacity of 10.16 Mgal/d for the MPW network of production wells. Simulated 2050 groundwater altitudes for this simulation declined to –359 feet. Simulated hydrographs for two observation wells show groundwater-level declines of 116 and 41 feet, respectively. Simulated differences in groundwater altitudes at a hypothetical observation well located in the MPW well field indicate a water-level decline of 164 feet between 2015 and 2050. Scenario 5 is a modification of Scenario 4 with the addition of two new MPW production wells. For this scenario, the MPW network of production wells were simulated the same as in Scenario 4, but withdrawals from the two new production wells were added in 2020. Simulated 2050 groundwater altitudes for this simulation declined to – 405 feet. Simulated hydrographs for two observation wells show groundwater-level declines of 143 and 51 feet, respectively. Simulated groundwater altitudes at a hypothetical observation well located in the MPW well field declined 199 feet between 2015 and 2050. Scenario 6 is a modification of Scenario 1, in which 140 additional quarterly stress periods were added to simulate MPW seasonal demands. Simulated groundwater altitudes for Scenario 6 declined to –353 feet during 2050. For Scenario 6, simulated hydrographs for two observation wells and the hypothetical observation well show similar groundwater-level declines as seen in Scenario 1, but with seasonal fluctuations of as much as 56 feet in the hypothetical observation well. Water budgets for the model area immediately surrounding Mount Pleasant, South Carolina, were calculated for 2015 and for 2050. The water budget for 2015 is equal for all of the scenarios because it represents the year prior to the hypothetical pumping beginning in 2016. The largest flow component in the 2015 water budget for the Mount Pleasant area is discharge to wells at a rate of 4.17 Mgal/d. Additionally, 0.23 Mgal/d flows laterally out of the Middendorf aquifer in this area of the model due to the regional horizontal hydraulic gradient. Flow into this zone consists predominantly of lateral flow within the Middendorf aquifer at 4.08 Mgal/d. Additionally, 0.02 Mgal/d is released into this zone from aquifer storage. Vertically, 0.06 Mgal/d flows down from the Middendorf confining unit located above the Middendorf aquifer, and 0.25 Mgal/d flows up from the Cape Fear confining unit below. The largest flow component in the 2050 water budget for all six scenarios is discharge to wells in the Mount Pleasant area at rates between 8.89 and 12.47 Mgal/d. Flow into this zone consists mostly of lateral flow between 8.47 and 11.77 Mgal/d within the Middendorf aquifer. Between 0.003 and 0.46 Mgal/d is released into this zone from aquifer storage. Between 0.004 and 0.15 Mgal/d flows laterally out of this zone into adjacent areas of the Middendorf aquifer due to the regional horizontal hydraulic gradient. Finally, between 0.15 and 0.22 Mgal/d flows vertically into this zone from confining units above and below the Middendorf aquifer.

South Carolina↗
USGS1997

Ground-water resources of Catron County, New Mexico

This report describes the occurrence, availability, and quality of ground-water and related surface-water resources in Catron County, the largest county in New Mexico. The county is located in the Lower Colorado River Basin and the Rio Grande Basin, and the Continental Divide is the boundary between the two river basins. Increases in water used for mining activities (coal, mineral, and geothermal), irrigated agriculture, reservoir construction, or domestic purposes could affect the quantity or quality of ground- water and surface-water resources in the county. Parts of seven major drainage basins are within the two regional river basins in the county--Carrizo Wash, North Plains, Rio Salado, San Agustin, Alamosa Creek, Gila, and San Francisco Basins. The San Francisco, Gila, and Tularosa Rivers typically flow perennially. During periods of low flow, most streamflow is derived from baseflow. The stream channels of the Rio Salado and Carrizo Wash Basins are commonly perennial in their upper reaches and ephemeral in their lower reaches. Largo Creek in the Carrizo Wash Basin is perennial downstream from Quemado Lake and ephemeral in the lower reaches. Aquifers in Catron County include Quaternary alluvium and bolson fill; Quaternary to Tertiary Gila Conglomerate; Tertiary Bearwallow Mountain Andesite, Datil Group, and Baca Formation; Cretaceous Mesaverde Group, Crevasse Canyon Formation, Gallup Sandstone, Mancos Shale, and Dakota Sandstone; Triassic Chinle Formation; and undifferentiated rocks of Permian age. Water in the aquifers in the county generally is unconfined; however, confined conditions may exist where the aquifers are overlain by other units of lower permeability. Yields of ground water from the Quaternary alluvium in the county range from 1 to 375 gallons per minute. Yields of ground water from the alluvium in the Carrizo Wash Basin are as much as 250 gallons per minute for short time periods. North of the Plains of San Agustin, ground-water yields from the alluvium in the San Agustin Basin range from 1 to 10 gallons per minute. Irrigation wells completed in the Quaternary bolson fill produce as much as 975 gallons per minute immediately east of the county. Water from the bolson fill in the Plains of San Agustin has specific-conductance values generally ranging from 180 to 3,300 microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius (microsiemens/cm). Yields from the Gila Conglomerate generally range from 2 to 5 gallons per minute. Water samples from two springs from the Gila Conglomerate have specific conductances of 289 and 381 microsiemens/cm. The Tertiary Datil Group is present in the Carrizo Wash, San Agustin, San Francisco, and Gila Basins. The Datil Group commonly is unconfined, but may be confined at depth. Water levels of wells completed in this unit range from 60 to 1,260 feet below land surface. Wells completed in the Datil Group typically yield 1 to 15 gallons per minute. Specific conductance of water from the Datil Group ranges from 210 to 820 microsiemens/cm. The Tertiary Baca Formation in the Carrizo Wash Basin produces 5 to 20 gallons per minute in stock wells. Water from wells completed in the Baca Formation has specific-conductance values ranging from 312 to 752 microsiemens/cm. Aquifers in Cretaceous rocks are present in the Carrizo Wash, North Plains, and Rio Salado Basins. The potential yield from wells completed in Cretaceous rocks in northwestern Catron County is from 1 to 122 gallons per minute. Specific conductance of water from Cretaceous rocks ranges from 210 microsiemens/cm in the Moreno Hill Formation to 4,490 microsiemens/cm in the Mancos Shale. Yields of ground water from Cretaceous rocks in the Carrizo Wash Basin typically range from 1 to 100 gallons per minute; in an artesian well, however, the yield in the main body of the Creta

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗
USGS2001

Water-quality characteristics in the Black Hills area, South Dakota

This report summarizes the water-quality characteristics of ground-water and surface-water in the Black Hills area. Differences in groundwater quality by aquifer and differences in surfacewater quality by water source are presented. Ground-water characteristics are discussed individually for each of the major aquifers in the Black Hills area, referred to herein as the Precambrian, Deadwood, Madison, Minnelusa, Minnekahta, and Inyan Kara aquifers. Characteristics for minor aquifers also are discussed briefly. Surface-water characteristics are discussed for hydrogeologic settings including headwater springs, crystalline core sites, artesian springs, and exterior sites. To characterize the water quality of aquifers and streams in the Black Hills area, data from the U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System water-quality database were examined. This included samples collected as part of the Black Hills Hydrology Study as well as for other studies within the time frame of October 1, 1930, to September 30, 1998. Tables of individual results are not presented in this report, only summaries. Constituents summarized and discussed include physical properties, common ions, nutrients, trace elements, and radionuclides. Comparisons of concentration levels are made to drinking-water standards as well as beneficial-use and aquatic-life criteria. Ground water within the Black Hills and surrounding area generally is fresh and hard to very hard. Concentrations exceeding various Secondary and Maximum Contaminant Levels may affect the use of the water in some areas for many aquifers within the study area. Concentrations that exceed Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels (SMCL's) generally affect the water only aesthetically. Radionuclide concentrations may be especially high in some of the major aquifers used within the study area and preclude the use of water in some areas. The sodiumadsorption ratio and specific conductance may affect irrigation use for some wells. High concentrations of iron and manganese are the only concentrations that may hamper the use of water from Precambrian aquifers. The principal deterrents to use of water from the Deadwood aquifer are the high concentrations of radionuclides as well as iron and manganese. Iron, manganese, and hardness may deter use of water from the Madison aquifer as well as dissolved solids and sulfate in downgradient wells (generally deeper than 2,000 feet). Iron, manganese, and hardness may also deter use of the Minnelusa aquifer. Water from the Minnekahta aquifer generally is suitable for all water uses although it is hard to very hard. High concentrations of dissolved solids, iron, sulfate, and manganese may hamper the use of water from the Inyan Kara aquifer. In the southern Black Hills, radium-226 and uranium concentrations also may preclude use of water from the Inyan Kara aquifer. Suitability for irrigation may be affected by high specific conductance and sodium-adsorption ratio for the Inyan Kara. Surface-water quality within the Black Hills and surrounding area generally is very good but the water is hard to very hard. Concentrations of some constituents in the study area tend to be higher exterior to the Black Hills, primarily due to influences from the Cretaceous-age marine shales, including dissolved solids, sodium, sulfate, selenium, and uranium. Headwater springs have relatively constant discharge, specific conductance, dissolved solids, and concentrations of most other constituents. Concentrations at crystalline core sites are very similar to those found in samples from Precambrian aquifers. Some high nitrate concentrations greater than the Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) of 10 mg/L (milligrams per liter) have occurred at Annie Creek near Lead, which have been attributed to mining impacts. Trace elements generally are low with the exception of arsenic, for which 60 percent of samples exceed the proposed MCL of 10 ug/L (micrograms per liter) and one sample

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗