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USGS2017

Evaluating population expansion of black bears using spatial capture-recapture

The population of American black bears ( Ursus americanus ) in southern New York, USA has been growing and expanding in range since the 1990s. This has motivated a need to anticipate future patterns of range expansion. We conducted a non-invasive, genetic, spatial capture-recapture (SCR) study to estimate black bear density and identify spatial patterns of population density that are potentially associated with range expansion. We collected hair samples in a 2,519-km 2 study area in southern New York with barbed-wire hair snares and identified individuals and measured genetic diversity using 7 microsatellite loci and 1 sex-linked marker. We estimated a mean density of black bears in the region of 13.7 bears/100 km 2 , and detected a slight latitudinal gradient in density consistent with the documented range expansion. However, elevation and the amounts of forest, crop, and developed landcover types did not influence density, suggesting that bears are using a diversity of resources in this heterogeneous landscape outside their previously described distribution. These results provide the first robust baseline estimates for population density and distribution associated with different landcover types in the expanded bear range. Further, genetic diversity was comparable to that of non-expanding black bear populations in the eastern United States, and in combination with the latitudinal density gradient, suggest that the study area is not at the colonizing front of the range expansion. In addition, the diversity of landcover types used by bears in the study area implies a possible lack of constraints for further northern expansion of the black bear range. Our non-invasive, genetic, spatial capture-recapture approach has utility for studying populations of other species that may be expanding in range because SCR allows for the testing of explicit, spatial ecological hypotheses.

New York↗

USGS2007

Climate change: Potential impacts and interactions in wetlands of the United States

Wetlands exist in a transition zone between aquatic and terrestrial environments which can be altered by subtle changes in hydrology. Twentieth century climate records show that the United States is generally experiencing a trend towards a wetter, warmer climate; some climate models suggest that his trend will continue and possibly intensify over the next 100 years. Wetlands that are most likely to be affected by these and other potential changes (e.g., sea-level rise) associated with atmospheric carbon enrichment include permafrost wetlands, coastal and estuarine wetlands, peatlands, alpine wetlands, and prairie pothote wetlands. Potential impacts range from changes in community structure to changes in ecological function, and from extirpation to enhancement. Wetlands (particularly boreal peatlands) play an important role in the global carbon cycle, generally sequestering carbon in the form of biomass, methane, dissolved organic material and organic sediment. Wetlands that are drained or partially dried can become a net source of methane and carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, serving as a positive biotic feedback to global warming. Policy options for minimizing the adverse impacts of climate change on wetland ecosystems include the reduction of current anthropogenic stresses, allowing for inland migration of coastal wetlands as sea-level rises, active management to preserve wetland hydrology, and a wide range of other management and restoration options.

Journal of the American Water Resources Associatio↗

USGS2025

Accounting for non-random samples with distance sampling to estimate population density

A critical assumption of standard distance sampling is that sampling lines are located such that animals are uniformly distributed as a function of distance from the line. Failure to meet this assumption can introduce bias in the estimator. Many studies have used landscape features, such as roads or rivers, as lines, which can violate assumptions of distance sampling in two ways. First, animals may be attracted or repelled by the landscape feature due to human activity (e.g. along roads) or habitat characteristics associated with the feature (e.g. rivers). Second, sampling along landscape features may not be representative of the larger area of interest. We used auxiliary data to generalize the distance sampling estimator and relax assumptions of a uniform distribution of animals relative to distance from the line (i.e. density gradient) and to allow the distribution of animals to differ by habitat type. The generalized estimator provides unbiased estimates of density within the area sampled but may not be representative of the study area. To address the problem of landscape features providing unrepresentative sampling, we used a resource selection model to estimate the proportion of the population that occurred within the surveyed area to obtain an estimate of abundance for the desired area of inference. We demonstrate our modified distance sampling estimator using white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) in a 972-km 2 study area. We conducted infrared surveys of deer from roads to collect distance-to-transect data. We used locations of radio-collared deer to model the distribution of deer relative to the transects and to develop a resource selection model of deer based on distance to roads, habitat type, elevation and slope to account for roads being a non-representative sample of the study area. Synthesis and applications . When using landscape features as survey lines, the density gradient and deer distribution can introduce either positive or negative bias, which makes it impossible to assess the bias introduced without auxiliary data. The estimator we developed can improve precision because we obtained a better fit to distance observations and accounts for non-random placement of transects with minimal loss of precision.

Journal of Applied Ecology↗

USGS2014

The National Climate Change and Wildlife Science Center annual report for 2013

In 2008, Congress created the National Climate Change and Wildlife Science Center (NCCWSC) within the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The center was formed to respond to the demands of natural resource managers for rigorous scientific information and effective tools for assessing and responding to climate change. Located at the USGS National Headquarters in Reston, Va., the NCCWSC has invested more than $93 million (through FY13) in cutting-edge climate change research and, in response to Secretarial Order No. 3289, established and is managing eight regional Department of Interior (DOI) Climate Science Centers (CSCs). In 2013: The DOI CSCs awarded nearly $7 million in funding to universities and other partners for climate and land-use change research. The scientific work of the NCCWSC-CSC enterprise moved toward projects that focus on ‘Science Infrastructure and Capacity Building’ and ‘Thematic Science’. A permanent director, David Helweg, Ph.D., was hired for the Pacific Islands CSC (PI CSC), completing the CSC leadership team. Staff scientists were hired at the Alaska (AK), Northeast (NE), and Southeast (SE) CSCs. Each of the eight CSCs completed the formation of regional Stakeholder Advisory Committees (SACs) and a national advisory committee (ACCCNRS) was created to oversee the NCCWSC-CSC enterprise. NCCWSC staff worked on creating a searchable public database on climate change vulnerability assessments. NCCWSC scientists authored articles in a special issue of the Ecological Society of America’s journal Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, which was devoted to an assessment of climate change effects on biodiversity and ecosystems, and the consequences for people. Learn more about these achievements in The National Climate Change and Wildlife Science Center Annual Report for 2013 .

Circular↗

USGS2014

Conservation Action Planning: Lessons learned from the St. Marys River watershed biodiversity conservation planning process

Conservation Action Planning (CAP) is an adaptive management planning process refined by The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and embraced worldwide as the Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation. The CAP process facilitates open, multi-institutional collaboration on a common conservation agenda through organized actions and quantified results. While specifically designed for conservation efforts, the framework is adaptable and flexible to multiple scales and can be used for any collaborative planning effort. The CAP framework addresses inception; design and development of goals, measures, and strategies; and plan implementation and evaluation. The specific components of the CAP include defining the project scope and conservation targets; assessing the ecological viability; ascertaining threats and surrounding situation; identifying opportunities and designing strategies for action; and implementing actions and monitoring results. In 2007, TNC and a multidisciplinary graduate student team from the University of Michigan's School of Natural Resources and Environment initiated a CAP for the St. Marys River, the connecting channel between Lake Superior and Lake Huron, and its local watershed. The students not only gained experience in conservation planning, but also learned lessons that notably benefited the CAP process and were valuable for any successful collaborative effort—a dedicated core team improved product quality, accelerated the timeline, and provided necessary support for ongoing efforts; an academic approach in preparation for engagement in the planning process brought applicable scientific research to the forefront, enhanced workshop facilitation, and improved stakeholder participation; and early and continuous interactions with regional stakeholders improved cooperation and built a supportive network for collaboration.

Michigan, Ontario↗

USGS2012

Red-tailed Hawk movements and use of habitat in the Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico

The Red-tailed Hawk ( Buteo jamaicensis ) is a top predator of upland ecosystems in the Greater Antilles. Little information exists on the ecology of the insular forms of this widely distributed species. We studied movements and resource use of the Red-tailed Hawk from 2000 to 2002 in the montane forests of northeastern Puerto Rico. We captured 32 and used 21 radio-marked Red-tailed Hawks to delineate home range, core area shifts, and macrohabitat use in the Luquillo Mountains. Red-tailed Hawks in the Luquillo Mountains frequently perched near the top of canopy emergent trees and were characterized by wide-ranging capabilities and extensive spatial overlap. Home range size averaged 5,022.6 ± 832.1 ha (305–11,288 ha) and core areas averaged 564.8 ± 90.7 ha (150–1,230 ha). This species had large mean weekly movements (3,286.2 ± 348.5 m) and a preference for roadside habitats. Our findings suggest fragmentation of contiguous forest outside protected areas in Puerto Rico may benefit the Red-tailed Hawk.

Puerto Rico↗

USGS2022

Suppression of invasive fish in the west: Synthesis and suggestions for improvement

Reservoirs are ubiquitous features on the landscape of the western United States. Although reservoirs provide numerous benefits (e.g., irrigation, flood control, hydropower, recreational use), these systems are often a concern from an ecological perspective. Reservoirs support fisheries primarily composed of nonindigenous sport fishes that may become invasive and negatively influence recipient ecosystems. Furthermore, reservoirs alter adjacent riverine habitats, further increasing the threat of invasive fishes to aquatic systems. As such, most western natural resource management agencies focus considerable effort on managing the threat of invasive fish species. Unfortunately, controlling invasive fish is expensive and rarely effective because of a lack of clear objectives, appropriate fishing mortality, and long-term commitment. In an effort to improve management of invasive fish in the western United States, we reviewed existing literature to identify the steps necessary to effectively suppress these species. Specifically, we provide guidance on defining achievable objectives, assessing feasibility, evaluating success, and improving the efficiency of invasive fish suppression. This iterative approach provides managers with a framework to effectively address the challenge of suppressing invasive fish in the western United States.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗

USGS2022

African penguins and localized fisheries management: Response to Butterworth and Ross-Gillespie

We present a response to Butterworth and Ross-Gillespie's (2022) comment on our perspectives on how forage fish fisheries are impacting the endangered African penguin ( Sphenicus demersus ), and corresponding management options. Butterworth and Ross-Gillespie overstate model uncertainties and downplay the clear ecological and conservation significance of the fisheries closure experiment. We demonstrate that their criticism of “pseudo-replication” is weak, and not in line with their own analyses nor with the interpretations of many international scientific review panels commissioned by the government of South Africa to evaluate experimental results. Their comment does not alter our fundamental conclusions that forage fisheries operating near penguin breeding colonies compete with the birds for food resources, are detrimental to the penguin's population health, and are impeding recovery. Given that sardines are depleted (DFFE, 2021) and the African penguin is approaching a conservation crisis, we reiterate our position that continuing the precautionary approach of closures at the local scale of central-place foraging penguins is warranted to facilitate their population growth under fisheries management goals to conserve and maintain ecosystem functions.

ICES Journal of Marine Science↗

USGS2010

Movements of juvenile common ravens in an arid landscape

Movement patterns of juvenile birds are poorly understood, yet critically important ecological phenomena, especially for species with a prolonged juvenile period. We evaluated postfledging movements of juvenile common ravens (Corvus corax) in a western Mojave Desert landscape composed of a mosaic of natural and anthropogenic elements. Generally, ravens do not begin breeding until after their fourth year. We marked 2 annual cohorts of juvenile ravens and followed them from dispersal from their natal territory for up to 33 months. Movements of juvenile common ravens were similar for males and females. Conspecifics and confined livestock feeding operations represented important resources for juvenile ravens, and juveniles were rarely located in open desert. However, initial movements from the natal territory to the nearest communal point subsidy rather than the closest anthropogenic resource suggested juvenile dispersal was influenced by the combination of conspecifics and anthropogenic resources, rather than the distribution of those resources. Land managers concerned with growing raven populations should reduce access to concentrated anthropogenic resources such as landfills and dairies, which serve as important resources for juveniles. Because juvenile ravens rarely venture into open desert, reducing their numbers by lethal removal or other means is unlikely to lessen raven predation of desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii).

Journal of Wildlife Management↗

USGS2016

Adaptive management for soil ecosystem services

Ecosystem services provided by soil include regulation of the atmosphere and climate, primary (including agricultural) production, waste processing, decomposition, nutrient conservation, water purification, erosion control, medical resources, pest control, and disease mitigation. The simultaneous production of these multiple services arises from complex interactions among diverse aboveground and belowground communities across multiple scales. When a system is mismanaged, non-linear and persistent losses in ecosystem services can arise. Adaptive management is an approach to management designed to reduce uncertainty as management proceeds. By developing alternative hypotheses, testing these hypotheses and adjusting management in response to outcomes, managers can probe dynamic mechanistic relationships among aboveground and belowground soil system components. In doing so, soil ecosystem services can be preserved and critical ecological thresholds avoided. Here, we present an adaptive management framework designed to reduce uncertainty surrounding the soil system, even when soil ecosystem services production is not the explicit management objective, so that managers can reach their management goals without undermining soil multifunctionality or contributing to an irreversible loss of soil ecosystem services.

Journal of Environmental Management↗

USGS2020

A novel approach for next generation water use mapping using Landsat and Sentinel-2 satellite data

Evapotranspiration (ET) is needed in a range of applications in hydrology, climatology, ecology, and agriculture. Remote sensing-based estimation is the only viable and economical method for ET estimation over large areas. The current Landsat satellites provide images every 16 days limiting the ability to capture biophysical changes affecting ET. Thus, we explored the potential integration of Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 data for estimating ET using a surface energy balance model. The results indicate the proposed Landsat-Sentinel data fusion approach substantially reduced relative errors from 48% to 10% on area-wide and from 49% to 17% on pixel-wide compared to linear interpolation between two Landsat images. The proposed approach had a better agreement with expected actual ET maps across high-vegetation conditions than in low-vegetation conditions. The finer temporal resolution and better accuracy of ET maps based on Landsat-Sentinel integration is of great importance in managing limited water resources.

Arizona, California↗

USGS2022

Hawaiian waterbird movement across a developed landscape

A key component for biologists managing mobile species is understanding where and when a species occurs at different locations and scaling management to fit the spatial and temporal patterns of movement. We established an automated radio-telemetry tracking network to document multi-year movement in 2016–2018 of 3 endangered waterbirds among wetlands on Oʻahu, Hawaiʻi, USA: ʻalae ʻula or Hawaiian gallinule (gallinule; Gallinula galeata sandvicensis ), ʻalae keʻokeʻo or Hawaiian coot (coot; Fulica alai ), and aeʻo or Hawaiian stilt (stilt; Himantopus mexicanus knudseni ), each with different ecological requirements. There were marked differences in the movement propensity of the species, with no movement among sites detected in gallinules, 31% of coots moving among wetlands, and very high levels of daily movement in stilts. A network analysis revealed strong evidence for fidelity among individual stilts to specific wetlands, indicating different groups of wetlands supported different birds. There was also strong evidence for patterns in daily and seasonal movement patterns of stilts. Our work indicates the importance of each wetland to the waterbirds they support, as each individual had strong fidelity to a single wetland. In addition, for Hawaiian coots and stilts, which were documented moving among multiple wetlands, a network of wetlands may be key for long-term persistence of these endangered species, and coordinated regional management of waterbirds as a shared resource could provide greater benefits to waterbirds than independent management of each wetland.

Hawaii↗

USGS2016

Establishing a baseline of estuarine submerged aquatic vegetation resources across salinity zones within coastal areas of the northern Gulf of Mexico

Coastal ecosystems are dynamic and productive areas that are vulnerable to effects of global climate change. Despite their potentially limited spatial extent, submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) beds function in coastal ecosystems as foundation species, and perform important ecological services. However, limited understanding of the factors controlling SAV distribution and abundance across multiple salinity zones (fresh, intermediate, brackish, and saline) in the northern Gulf of Mexico restricts the ability of models to accurately predict resource availability. We sampled 384 potential coastal SAV sites across the northern Gulf of Mexico in 2013 and 2014, and examined community and species-specific SAV distribution and biomass in relation to year, salinity, turbidity, and water depth. After two years of sampling, 14 species of SAV were documented, with three species (coontail [Ceratophyllum demersum], Eurasian watermilfoil [Myriophyllum spicatum], and widgeon grass [Ruppia maritima]) accounting for 54% of above-ground biomass collected. Salinity and water depth were dominant drivers of species assemblages but had little effect on SAV biomass. Predicted changes in salinity and water depths along the northern Gulf of Mexico coast will likely alter SAV production and species assemblages, shifting to more saline and depth-tolerant assemblages, which in turn may affect habitat and food resources for associated faunal species.

Gulf of Mexico↗

USGS2023

A reference genome assembly for the continentally distributed ring-necked snake, Diadophis punctatus

Snakes in the family Colubridae include more than 2,000 currently recognized species, and comprise roughly 75% of the global snake species diversity on Earth. For such a spectacular radiation, colubrid snakes remain poorly understood ecologically and genetically. Two subfamilies, Colubrinae (788 species) and Dipsadinae (833 species), comprise the bulk of colubrid species richness. Dipsadines are a speciose and diverse group of snakes that largely inhabit Central and South America, with a handful of small-body-size genera that have invaded North America. Among them, the ring-necked snake, Diadophis punctatus , has an incredibly broad distribution with 14 subspecies. Given its continental distribution and high degree of variation in coloration, diet, feeding ecology, and behavior, the ring-necked snake is an excellent species for the study of genetic diversity and trait evolution. Within California, six subspecies form a continuously distributed “ring species” around the Central Valley, while a seventh, the regal ring-necked snake, Diadophis punctatus regalis is a disjunct outlier and Species of Special Concern in the state. Here, we report a new reference genome assembly for the San Diego ring-necked snake, D. p. similis , as part of the California Conservation Genomics Project. This assembly comprises a total of 444 scaffolds spanning 1,783 Mb and has a contig N50 of 8.0 Mb, scaffold N50 of 83 Mb, and BUSCO completeness score of 94.5%. This reference genome will be a valuable resource for studies of the taxonomy, conservation, and evolution of the ring-necked snake across its broad, continental distribution.

Journal of Heredity↗

USGS2024

Does the extent of glacial cover across watersheds and discharge periods affect dietary resource use of nearshore fishes in the Northern Gulf of Alaska?

Northern high-latitude glaciers impact nearshore marine ecosystems through the discharge of cold and fresh waters, including nutrients and organic matter. Fishes are important integrators of ecosystem processes and hold key positions in the transfer of energy to higher trophic positions in such systems. This study used a natural gradient in space and time, including watershed glacial cover (0–60%) of five adjacent estuaries and three sequential discharge periods (pre-peak, peak, post-peak) in the northern Gulf of Alaska (Kachemak Bay) to test whether differences in glacial cover of watersheds upstream of estuaries affect dietary resource use of nearshore fishes. Dietary resource use was assessed using stomach content and stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses to determine fish diet composition and trophic niche width. Crescent gunnel ( Pholis laeta ), a mostly sedentary species, was our focal species for comparisons across estuaries and discharge periods. Discharge period had a greater influence on diet composition and trophic niche width of crescent gunnels than watershed glacial coverage. Niche width of crescent gunnel was larger during the post-peak discharge period compared to pre-peak and peak periods, coincident with a shift in prey spectrum. However, watershed glacial cover was not a suitable predictor of niche width of crescent gunnel. Trophic resource use was also considered along this glacial cover gradient for two other fish species, Pacific staghorn sculpin ( Leptocottus armatus ) and starry flounder ( Platichthys stellatus ), but within the post-peak discharge period only. These species exploited a larger prey base compared to crescent gunnel, likely due to their greater mobility. Similar to crescent gunnel, there were no relationships in trophic niche width associated with watershed glacial coverage for these other species during the post-peak discharge period. Instead, trophic resource use of these three nearshore fish species was influenced by a more complex set of dynamic environmental variables (salinity, temperature, turbidity, and discharge), as well as static watershed characteristics, especially vegetation cover. Such drivers can act through changes in metabolic rates, modulating foraging strategies and trophic connectivity, as well as terrestrial nutrient delivery to support estuarine production. The environmental conditions associated with the glacially influenced estuaries during our study period (2020−2021) seemed within a range that allowed nearshore fishes to maintain energy pathways and prey bases across these estuaries, but it is unknown how these estuarine food webs may be influenced in years of extreme conditions such as during heat waves, droughts, or floods.

Alaska↗

USGS2012

Relative value of managed wetlands and tidal marshlands for wintering northern pintails

Northern pintail Anas acuta (hereafter, pintail) populations have declined substantially throughout the western US since the 1970s, largely as a result of converting wetlands to cropland. Managed wetlands have been developed throughout the San Francisco Bay estuaries to provide wildlife habitat, particularly for waterfowl. Many of these areas were historically tidal baylands and plans are underway to remove dikes and restore tidal action. The relationship between tidal baylands and waterfowl populations is poorly understood. Our objective was to provide information on selection and avoidance of managed and tidal marshland by pintails. During 1991–1993 and 1998–2000, we radio-marked and relocated 330 female pintails (relocations, n =11,574) at Suisun Marsh, the largest brackish water estuary within San Francisco Bay, to estimate resource selection functions during the nonbreeding months (winter). Using a distance-based modeling approach, we calculated selection functions for different ecological communities (e.g., tidal baylands) and investigated variation explained by time of day (day or night hours) to account for differences in pintail behavior (i.e., foraging vs. roosting). We found strong evidence for selection of managed wetlands. Pintails also avoided tidal marshes and bays and channels. We did not detect differences in selection function between day and night hours for managed wetlands but the degree of avoidance of other habitats varied by time of day. We also found that areas subjected to tidal action did not influence the selection of immediately adjacent managed wetlands. If current management goals include providing habitat for wintering waterfowl populations, particularly pintail, then we recommend wildlife managers focus tidal restoration on areas that are not currently managed wetland and/or improve conditions in areas of managed wetlands to increase local carrying capacities

California↗

USGS2002

Native American impacts on fire regimes of the California coastal ranges

Aim Native American burning impacts on California shrubland dominated landscapes are evaluated relative to the natural lightning fire potential for affecting landscape patterns. Location Focus was on the coastal ranges of central and southern California. Methods Potential patterns of Indian burning were evaluated based upon historical documents, ethnographic accounts, archaeological records and consideration of contemporary land management tactics. Patterns of vegetation distribution in this region were evaluated relative to environmental factors and the resilience of the dominant shrub vegetation to different fire frequencies. Results Lightning fire frequency in this region is one of the lowest in North America and the density of pre-Columbian populations was one of the highest. Shrublands dominate the landscape throughout most of the region. These woody communities have weak resilience to high fire frequency and are readily displaced by annual grasses and forbs under high fire frequency. Intact shrublands provided limited resources for native Americans and thus there was ample motivation for using fire to degrade this vegetation to an open mosaic of shrubland/grassland, not unlike the agropastoral modification of ecologically related shrublands by Holocene peoples in the Mediterranean Basin. Alien-dominated grasslands currently cover approximately one-quarter of the landscape and less than 1% of these grasslands have a significant native grass presence. Ecological studies in the Californian coastal ranges have failed to uncover any clear soil or climate factors explaining grassland and shrubland distribution patterns. Main conclusions Coastal ranges of California were regions of high Indian density and low frequency of lightning fires. The natural vegetation dominants on this landscape are shrubland vegetation that often form dense impenetrable stands with limited resources for Native Americans. Natural fire frequencies are not high enough to maintain these landscapes in habitable mixtures of shrublands and grasslands but such landscape mosaics are readily produced with additional human subsidy of ignitions. It is hypothesized that a substantial fraction of the landscape was type converted from shrubland to grassland and much of the landscape that underwent such type conversion has either been maintained by Euro-American land management practices or resisted recolonization of native shrublands. It appears that these patterns are disturbance dependent and result from anthropogenic alteration of landscapes initiated by Native Americans and sustained and expanded upon by Euro-American settlers.

Journal of Biogeography↗

USGS2015

Diel resource partitioning among juvenile Atlantic Salmon, Brown Trout, and Rainbow Trout during summer

Interspecific partitioning of food and habitat resources has been widely studied in stream salmonids. Most studies have examined resource partitioning between two native species or between a native species and one that has been introduced. In this study we examine the diel feeding ecology and habitat use of three species of juvenile salmonids (i.e., Atlantic Salmon Salmo salar , Brown Trout Salmo trutta , and Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss ) in a tributary of Skaneateles Lake, New York. Subyearling Brown Trout and Rainbow Trout fed more heavily from the drift than the benthos, whereas subyearling Atlantic Salmon fed more from the benthos than either species of trout. Feeding activity of Atlantic Salmon and Rainbow Trout was similar, with both species increasing feeding at dusk, whereas Brown Trout had no discernable feeding peak or trough. Habitat availability was important in determining site-specific habitat use by juvenile salmonids. Habitat selection was greater during the day than at night. The intrastream, diel, intraspecific, and interspecific variation we observed in salmonid habitat use in Grout Brook illustrates the difficulty of acquiring habitat use information for widespread management applications.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗