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USGS2012

Seasonal use of shallow water habitat in the Lower Snake River reservoirs by juvenile fall Chinook salmon

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) is preparing a long term management plan for sediments that affect the authorized project purposes of the Lower Granite, Little Goose, Lower Monumental, and Ice Harbor reservoirs (hereafter, the lower Snake River reservoirs), and the area from the mouth of the Snake River to Ice Harbor Dam. We conducted a study from spring 2010 through winter 2011 to describe the habitat use by juvenile Chinook salmon within a selected group of shallow water habitat complexes (< 6 m deep) in the lower Snake River reservoirs to help inform the long-term plan. Natural fry and parr were present within all four shallow water habitat complexes that we studied from early spring through early summer, and parr ( = 40,345 ± 18,800 [error bound]) were more abundant than fry ( = 24,615 ± 5,701). Water < 2 m deep was highly used for rearing by natural fall Chinook salmon subyearlings (fry and parr combined; hereafter natural subyearlings) based on duration of use and relative group abundances during spring and summer, whereas the 2–6 m depth interval was more highly used by migratory hatchery fall Chinook salmon subyearlings and spring, summer, and fall Chinook salmon yearlings. Overall mean spring-summer apparent density of natural subyearlings was 15.5 times higher within the < 2 m depth interval than within the 2–6 m depth interval. Density of natural subyearlings also decreased as the distance a given shallow water habitat complex was located from the riverine spawning areas increased. Reservoir-type juveniles (or fish likely destined to become reservoir-type juveniles) were present in the lower Snake River reservoirs from fall 2010 through winter 2011; however, use of shallow water habitat by reservoir-type juveniles was limited during our study. We only collected 38 reservoir-type juveniles in shallow water habitat sites in beach and lampara seines during the fall. Radiotelemetry data revealed that though many tagged fish passed shallow water habitat sites, relatively few fish entered them and the median time fish spent within a given site was less than 1.4 h. Fish located by mobile tracking away from study sites were pelagically oriented, and generally not found over shallow water or close to shore. The findings in this report: (1) support the selection of natural fall Chinook subyearlings as the indicator group for determining the potential benefits of using dredge spoils to create shallow water habitat, (2) provide evidence for shallow water habitat use by natural subyearlings, (3) provide evidence against large-scale use of shallow water habitat by reservoir-type juveniles, (4) suggest that the depth criterion for defining shallow water habitat (i.e., < 6 m deep) warrants reconsideration, and (5) provide guidance for when to dredge and create shallow water habitat. Future research on habitat preference, feeding ecology, the food web, and intra-specific competition would help to better inform the long-term management plan.

Report↗

USGS2000

Water movement through a thick unsaturated zone underlying an intermittent stream in the western Mojave Desert, southern California, USA

Previous studies indicated that small amounts of recharge occur as infiltration of intermittent streamflow in washes in the upper Mojave River basin , in the western Mojave Desert , near Victorville, California. These washes flow only a few days each year after large storms . To reach the water table , water must pass through an unsaturated zone that is more than 130 m thick. Results of this study, done in 1994–1998, show that infiltration to depths below the root zone did not occur at control sites away from the wash. At these sites, volumetric water contents were as low as 0.01 and water potentials (measured as the combination of solute and matric potentials using a water activity meter) were as negative as −14,000 kPa. Water-vapor movement was controlled by highly negative solute potentials associated with the accumulation of soluble salts in the unsaturated zone. Highly negative matric potentials above and below the zone of maximum solute accumulation result from movement of water vapor toward the highly negative solute potentials at that depth. The δ 18 O and δ D (delta oxygen-18 and delta deuterium) isotopic composition of water in coarse-grained deposits plots along a Rayleigh distillation line consistent with removal of water in coarse-grained layers by vapor transport. Beneath Oro Grande Wash, water moved to depths below the root zone and, presumably, to the water table about 130 m below land surface. Underneath Oro Grande Wash, volumetric water contents were as high as 0.27 and water potentials (measured as matric potential using tensiometers) were between −1.8 and −50 kPa. On the basis of tritium data, water requires at least 180–260 years to infiltrate to the water table. Clay layers impede the downward movement of water. Seasonal changes in water vapor composition underneath the wash are consistent with the rapid infiltration of a small quantity of water to great depths and subsequent equilibration of vapor with water in the surrounding material. It may be possible to supplement natural recharge from the wash with imported water. Recharge to the wash may be advantageous because the unsaturated zone is not as dry as most areas in the desert and concentrations of soluble salts are generally lower underneath the wash.

Journal of Hydrology↗

USGS2008

Experimental Repatriation of Mountain Yellow-legged Frogs (Rana muscosa) in the Sierra Nevada of California

In the late 1970s, Rana muscosa (mountain yellow-legged frog) was common in the Tableland area of Sequoia National Park, California where it was possible to find hundreds of tadpoles and adults around many of the ponds and lakes. Surveys in 1993-1995 demonstrated that R. muscosa was absent from more than half of all suitable habitat within the park, including the Tableland area. At that same time, R. muscosa was still common at Sixty Lake Basin, Kings Canyon National Park, 30 km to the northeast. To evaluate the potential causes for the extirpation, we repatriated R. muscosa eggs, tadpoles, subadults, and adult frogs from Sixty Lake Basin to four sites in the Tableland area in 1994 and 1995. We subsequently surveyed each release site and the surrounding area 2 - 3 times per week in 1994-1995, and intermittently in 1996-1997, to monitor the survival of all life history stages, and to detect dispersal of adults and subadults. We also monitored predation, water quality, weather, and water temperature. Our techniques for capturing, holding, transporting, and releasing R. muscosa were refined during the study, and during 1995 resulted in high initial survival rates of all life history stages. Adult frogs were anaesthetized, weighed, measured, tagged, and held in plastic boxes with wet paper towels. Tadpoles were collected and held in fiberglass screen cages set in the water at the edge of a pond. This resulted in relatively natural conditions with less crowding and good water circulation. Frogs, tadpoles, and eggs were placed in Ziploc bags for transport to the Tableland by helicopter. Short-term survival of tadpoles, subadults, and adults was high at all four release sites, tadpoles reached metamorphosis, and adult frogs were still present. However, we detected no evidence of reproduction at three sites (e.g., no new eggs or small tadpoles) and nearly all life history stages disappeared within 12 months. At the fourth site, there was limited reproduction, but it was insufficient to maintain a population. It appears that the causal factors for the demise of R. muscosa in the Tableland during the 1970s were still operating in the 1990s or that a new limiting factor has developed. Dispersal, weather, water quality, and predation do not appear to be causative agents; since fish have never been present in the portions of the watershed where we were working, they were not a factor. Observations and data are consistent with the hypotheses that chytridiomycosis, caused by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, and/or exposure to airborne pesticides caused both declines. However, at the time of our study, chytridiomycosis had not been described and the potentially significant role of contaminants was largely undocumented.

Open-File Report↗

USGS2023

Identifying drivers of population dynamics for a stream breeding amphibian using time series of egg mass counts

The decline in amphibian populations is one of the starkest examples of the biodiversity crisis. For stream breeding amphibians, alterations to natural flow regimes by dams, water diversions, and climate change have been implicated in declines and extirpations. Identifying drivers of amphibian declines requires long time series of abundance data because amphibian populations can exhibit high natural variability. Multiple population viability analysis (MPVA) models integrate abundance data and share information from different populations to estimate how environmental factors influence population growth. Flow alteration has been linked to declines and extirpations in the Foothill Yellow-legged Frog ( Rana boylii ), a stream breeding amphibian native to California and Oregon. To date, no study has jointly analyzed abundance data from populations throughout the range of R. boylii in an MPVA model. We compiled time series of egg mass counts (an index of adult female abundance) from R. boylii populations in 36 focal streams and fit an MPVA model to quantify how streamflow metrics, stream temperature, and surrounding land cover affect population growth. We found population growth was positively related to stream temperature and was higher in the years following a wet year with high total annual streamflow. Density dependence was weakest (i.e., carrying capacity was highest) for streams with high seasonality of streamflow and intermediate rates of change in streamflow during spring. Our results highlight how altered streamflow can further increase the risk of decline for R. boylii populations. Managing stream conditions to better match natural flow and thermal regimes would benefit the conservation of R. boylii populations.

California, Oregon↗

USGS2009

Taste and odor occurrence in Lake William C. Bowen and Municipal Reservoir #1, Spartanburg County, South Carolina

The U.S. Geological Survey and Spartanburg Water are working cooperatively on an ongoing study of Lake Bowen and Reservoir #1 to identify environmental factors that enhance or influence the production of geosmin in the source-water reservoirs. Spartanburg Water is using information from this study to develop management strategies to reduce (short-term solution) and prevent (long-term solution) geosmin occurrence. Spartanburg Water utility treats and distributes drinking water to the Spartanburg area of South Carolina. The drinking water sources for the area are Lake William C. Bowen (Lake Bowen) and Municipal Reservoir #1 (Reservoir #1), located north of Spartanburg. These reservoirs, which were formed by the impoundment of the South Pacolet River, were assessed in 2006 by the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control (SCDHEC) as being fully supportive of all uses based on established criteria. Nonetheless, Spartanburg Water had noted periodic taste and odor problems due to the presence of geosmin, a naturally occurring compound in the source water. Geosmin is not harmful, but its presence in drinking water is aesthetically unpleasant.

South Carolina↗

USGS2001

Hydrogeology of the Tully Lakes area in southern Onondaga and northern Cortland Counties, New York

Water levels in a series of kettlehole lakes and ponds known as the Tully Lakes respond to seasonal water-level changes in the surrounding aquifer but often differ from ground-water levels in the aquifer because the lakebed sediments are poorly permeable and inhibit the exchange of water. Three sets of ground-water-level measurements were made from the spring recharge period of 2000 through the fall of that year. Seasonal ground-water-level declines ranged from 1.5 to 8 feet. Average annual water-level fluctuations in the three western lakes ranged from 2.5 to 6 feet, whereas those in the two eastern lakes were only about 1.5 feet because these lakes have natural outlets. The ground-water divide between the St. Lawrence and Susquehanna River Basins did not coincide with the surface-water divide and the ground-water divide moved southerly in response to lower water levels in the aquifer during the summer and fall.

New York↗

USGS2004

Quality and sources of ground water used for public supply in Salt Lake Valley, Salt Lake County, Utah, 2001

Ground water supplies about one-third of the water used by the public in Salt Lake Valley, Utah. The occurrence and distribution of natural and anthropogenic compounds in ground water used for public supply in the valley were evaluated. Water samples were collected from 31 public-supply wells in 2001 and analyzed for major ions, trace elements, radon, nutrients, dissolved organic carbon, methylene blue active substances, pesticides, and volatile organic compounds. The samples also were analyzed for the stable isotopes of water (oxygen-18 and deuterium), tritium, chlorofluorocarbons, and dissolved gases to determine recharge sources and ground-water age. Dissolved-solids concentration ranged from 157 to 1,280 milligrams per liter (mg/L) in water from the 31 public-supply wells. Comparison of dissolved-solids concentration of water sampled from the principal aquifer during 1988-92 and 1998-2002 shows a reduction in the area where water with less than 500 mg/L occurs. Nitrate concentration in water sampled from 12 of the 31 public-supply wells was higher than an estimated background level of 2 mg/L, indicating a possible human influence. At least one pesticide or pesticide degradation product was detected at a concentration much lower than drinking-water standards in water from 13 of the 31 wells sampled. Chloroform was the most frequently detected volatile organic compound (17 of 31 samples). Its widespread occurrence in deeper ground water is likely a result of the recharge of chlorinated public-supply water used to irrigate lawns and gardens in residential areas of Salt Lake Valley. Environmental tracers were used to determine the sources of recharge to the principal aquifer used for public supply in the valley. Oxygen-18 values and recharge temperatures computed from dissolved noble gases in the ground water were used to differentiate between mountain and valley recharge. Maximum recharge temperatures in the eastern part of the valley generally are below the range of valley water-table temperatures indicating that mountain-block recharge must constitute a substantial fraction of recharge to the principal aquifer in this area. Together, the recharge temperature and stable-isotope data define two zones with apparently high proportions of valley recharge on the east side of the valley. The possibility of water samples containing a substantial proportion of water recharged before thermonuclear testing began in the early 1950s (pre-bomb) was evaluated by comparing the initial tritium concentration of each sample (measured tritium plus measured tritiogenic helium-3) to that of local precipitation at the apparent time of recharge. Three interpreted-age categories were determined for water from the sampled wells: (1) dominantly pre-bomb; (2) dominantly modern; and (3) modern or a mixture of pre-bomb and modern. Apparent tritium/helium-3 ages range from 3 years to more than 50 years. Water generally becomes older with distance from the mountain front, with the oldest water present in the discharge area. The presence of anthropogenic compounds at concentrations above reporting levels and elevated nitrate concentrations (affected wells) in the principal aquifer is well correlated with the distribution of interpreted-age categories. All of the wells (10 of 10) with dominantly modern water are affected. Seventy percent (7 of 10) of the wells with dominantly modern or a mixture of modern and pre-bomb waters are affected. Only 1 of the 11 wells with dominantly pre-bomb water is affected. Anthropogenic compounds were not detected in water with an apparent age of more than 50 years, except for water from one well. All of the samples that consisted mostly of modern water contained at least one anthropogenic compound.

Utah↗

USGS2000

Water quality in alluvial aquifers of the southern Rocky Mountains Physiographic Province, upper Colorado River basin, Colorado, 1997

Water-quality samples were collected in the summer of 1997 from 45 sites (43 wells and 2 springs) in selected alluvial aquifers throughout the Southern Rocky Mountains physiographic province of the Upper Colorado River Basin study unit as part of the U.S. Geological Survey National Water-Quality Assessment Program. The objective of this study was to assess the water-quality conditions in selected alluvial aquifers in the Southern Rocky Mountains physiographic province. Alluvial aquifers are productive aquifers in the Southern Rocky Mountains physiographic province and provide for easily developed wells. Water-quality samples were collected from areas where ground water is used predominantly for domestic or public water supply. Twenty-three of the 45 sites sampled were located in or near mining districts. No statistical differences were observed between the mining sites and sites not associated with mining activities for the majority of the constituents analyzed. Water samples were analyzed for major ions, nutrients, dissolved organic carbon, trace elements, radon-222, pesticides, volatile organic compounds, bacteria, and methylene blue active substances. In addition, field parameters consisting of water temperature, specific conductance, dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity, and alkalinity were measured at all sites. Specific conductance for the ground-water sites ranged from 57 to 6,650 microsiemens per centimeter and had higher concentrations measured in areas such as the northwestern part of the study unit. Dissolved oxygen ranged from 0.1 to 6.0 mg/L (milligrams per liter) and had a median concentration of 2.9 mg/L. The pH field values ranged from 6.1 to 8.1; about 4 percent of the sites (2 of 45) had pH values outside the range of 6.5 to 8.5 and so did not meet the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency secondary maximum contaminant level standard for drinking water. About 5 percent (2 of 43) of the samples exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recommended turbidity value of 5 nephelometric turbidity units; one of these samples was from a monitoring well. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency secondary maximum contaminant levels for dissolved solids, sulfate, iron, and manganese were exceeded at some of the sites. Higher dissolved-solids concentrations were detected where sedimentary rocks are exposed, such as in the northwestern part of the Southern Rocky Mountains physiographic province. The dominant water compositions for the sites sampled are calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonate. However, sites in areas where sedimentary rocks are exposed and sites located in or near mining areas show more sulfate-dominated waters. Nutrient concentrations were less than the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency drinking-water standards. Only one site had a nitrate concentration greater than 3.0 mg/L, a level indicating possible influence from human activities. No significant differences among land-use/land-cover classifications (forest, rangeland, and urban) for drinking-water wells (42 sites) were identified for dissolved-solids, sulfate, nitrate, iron or manganese concentrations. Radon concentrations were higher in parts of the study unit where Precambrian rocks are exposed. All radon concentrations in ground water exceeded the previous U.S. Environmental Protection Agency proposed maximum contaminant level for drinking water, which has been withdrawn pending further review. Pesticide detections were at concentrations below the reporting limits and were too few to allow for comparison of the data. Eight volatile organic compounds were detected at six sites; all concentrations complied with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency drinking-water standards. Total coliform bacteria were detected at six sites, but no Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) was detected. Methylene blue active substances were detected at three sites at concentrations just above the reporting limit. Overall, the water quality in the Southern Rocky Mountains physiographic province is suitable for most uses, but natural and human factors affect the water quality.

Colorado↗

USGS1976

Land subsidence and aquifer-system compaction in the San Jacinto Valley, Riverside County, California - A progress report

Widespread subsidence continues in the San Jacinto structural trough as water levels continue to decline. Subsidence is due principally to the compaction of water-bearing deposits as effective stresses are increased by artesian-head decline. Other possible contributory causes of subsidence are (1) local or regional tectonic adjustments and graben downfaulting, (2) natural compaction of deep water-bearing deposits below the bottom of well casings, and (3) continuing compaction of surficial deposits due to causes other than artesian-head decline. A careful analysis of 4 yr of correlative records of waterlevel, extensometer, and land-surface changes suggests three types of vertical ground movement occurring at the 4S/1W-21N2 recorder site near the San Jacinto reservoir site. The reservoir was drained in October 1973. Listed in descending order of magnitude these are (1) an elastic undulation of the land surface of about 0.06 ft (0.02 m) per year in close response to the roughly 50 ft (15 m) of seasonal water-level fluctuations, (2) a long-term permanent compaction of the deposits in the 0-1,237-ft (0-377-m) zone of about 0.04 ft (0.01 m) per year, and (3) a deep settlement of deposits below the 1,237-ft (377-m) extensometer anchor of 0.01-0.02 ft (0.003-0.006 m) per year, probably caused by continuing downfaulting in the graben trough. The specific compaction of the aquifer system at this site from 1970 to 1974 was about 1.3x 10 -2 (units of compaction per unit of increase in applied stress). The specific, expansion during this period decreased progressively from 1.29x 10 -3 (units of expansion per unit of stress decrease) in 1970-71 to 0.95x10 -3 in 1973-74, suggesting that excess pore pressures in the slow-draining aquitards were not completely dissipated each year.

California↗

USGS2011

Determination of dilution factors for discharge of aluminum-containing wastes by public water-supply treatment facilities into lakes and reservoirs in Massachusetts

Dilution of aluminum discharged to reservoirs in filter-backwash effluents at water-treatment facilities in Massachusetts was investigated by a field study and computer simulation. Determination of dilution is needed so that permits for discharge ensure compliance with water-quality standards for aquatic life. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency chronic standard for aluminum, 87 micrograms per liter (μg/L), rather than the acute standard, 750 μg/L, was used in this investigation because the time scales of chronic exposure (days) more nearly match rates of change in reservoir concentrations than do the time scales of acute exposure (hours). Whereas dilution factors are routinely computed for effluents discharged to streams solely on the basis of flow of the effluent and flow of the receiving stream, dilution determination for effluents discharged to reservoirs is more complex because (1), compared to streams, additional water is available for dilution in reservoirs during low flows as a result of reservoir flushing and storage during higher flows, and (2) aluminum removal in reservoirs occurs by aluminum sedimentation during the residence time of water in the reservoir. Possible resuspension of settled aluminum was not considered in this investigation. An additional concern for setting discharge standards is the substantial concentration of aluminum that can be naturally present in ambient surface waters, usually in association with dissolved organic carbon (DOC), which can bind aluminum and keep it in solution. A method for dilution determination was developed using a mass-balance equation for aluminum and considering sources of aluminum from groundwater, surface water, and filter-backwash effluents and losses caused by sedimentation, water withdrawal, and spill discharge from the reservoir. The method was applied to 13 reservoirs. Data on aluminum and DOC concentrations in reservoirs and influent water were collected during the fall of 2009. Complete reservoir volume was determined to be available for mixing on the basis of vertical and horizontal aluminum-concentration profiling. Losses caused by settling of aluminum were assumed to be proportional to aluminum concentration and reservoir area. The constant of proportionality, as a function of DOC concentration, was established by simulations in each of five reservoirs that differed in DOC concentration. In addition to computing dilution factors, the project determined dilution factors that would be protective with the same statistical basis (frequency of exceedance of the chronic standard) as dilutions computed for streams at the 7-day-average 10-year-recurrence annual low flow (the 7Q10). Low-flow dilutions are used for permitting so that receiving waters are protected even at the worst-case flow levels. The low-flow dilution factors that give the same statistical protection are the lowest annual 7-day-average dilution factors with a recurrence of 10 years, termed 7DF10s. Determination of 7DF10 values for reservoirs required that long periods of record be simulated so that dilution statistics could be determined. Dilution statistics were simulated for 13 reservoirs from 1960 to 2004 using U.S. Geological Survey Firm-Yield Estimator software to model reservoir inputs and outputs and present-day values of filter-effluent discharge and aluminum concentration. Computed settling velocities ranged from 0 centimeters per day (cm/d) at DOC concentrations of 15.5 milligrams per liter (mg/L) to 21.5 cm/d at DOC concentrations of 2.7 mg/L. The 7DF10 values were a function of aluminum effluent discharged. At current (2009) effluent discharge rates, the 7DF10 values varied from 1.8 to 115 among the 13 reservoirs. In most cases, the present-day (2009) discharge resulted in receiving water concentrations that did not exceed the standard at the 7DF10. Exceptions were one reservoir with a very small area and three reservoirs with high concentrations of DOC. Maximum permissible discharges were determined for water-treatment plants by adjusting discharges upward in simulations until the 7DF10 resulted in reservoir concentrations that just met the standard. In terms of aluminum flux, these discharges ranged from 0 to 28 kilograms of aluminum per day.

Massachusetts↗

USGS1996

Quality of ground water at selected sites in the upper Mahoning Creek Basin, Pennsylvania

The ground-water quality of the upper Mahoning Creek Basin is largely unknown. Human activities in the basin have altered much of the landscape. The presence of coal mining, oil and gas exploration, agriculture, on-lot septic systems, and commercial development within the basin can introduce contaminants altering the natural chemistry of the ground water. Data collected to document current ground-water quality also can serve as a baseline for comparison of any future water-quality changes by continuing human activities. This report presents the results of a synoptic ground-water-quality sampling in the upper Mahoning Creek Basin. Present ground-water quality in the basin is characterized in relation to published standards, local land-use activities, and other areas with similar natural characteristics.

Fact Sheet↗

USGS2005

Status of and changes in water quality monitored for the Idaho statewide surface-water-quality network, 1989—2002

The Idaho statewide surface-water-quality monitoring network consists of 56 sites that have been monitored from 1989 through 2002 to provide data to document status and changes in the quality of Idaho streams. Sampling at 33 sites has covered a wide range of flows and seasons that describe water-quality variations representing both natural conditions and human influences. Targeting additional high- or low-flow sampling would better describe conditions at 20 sites during hydrologic extremes. At the three spring site types, sampling covered the range of flow conditions from 1989 through 2002 well. However, high flows at these sites since 1989 were lower than historical high flows as a result of declining ground-water levels in the Snake River Plain. Summertime stream temperatures at 45 sites commonly exceeded 19 and 22 degrees Celsius, the Idaho maximum daily mean and daily maximum criteria, respectively, for the protection of coldwater aquatic life. Criteria exceedances in stream basins with minimal development suggest that such high temperatures may occur naturally in many Idaho streams. Suspended-sediment concentrations were generally higher in southern Idaho than in central and northern Idaho, and network data suggest that the turbidity criteria are most likely to be exceeded at sites in southern Idaho and other sections of the Columbia Plateaus geomorphic province. This is probably because this province has more fine-grained soils that are subject to erosion and disturbance by land uses than the Northern Rocky Mountains province of northern and central Idaho has. Although erodable soils are likely a cause of elevated turbidities, suspended-sediment concentrations were not strongly correlated with turbidities. Dissolved-solids and hardness concentrations were strongly correlated. This is probably because the limestones present in some basins are more soluble than the igneous rocks that predominate in others. Low hardness in streams of northern Idaho, where watersheds are underlain by resistant igneous rocks, enhances the toxicity of some trace elements to aquatic life in these streams. Only a few measurements of dissolved-oxygen concentrations at six sites were less than 6.0 milligrams per liter, the Idaho minimum criterion for protection of aquatic organisms. High supersaturations of dissolved oxygen at four sites suggest excessive photosynthetic activity by algal communities. Nighttime monitoring would help determine whether dissolved-oxygen concentrations at these sites might fall below the Idaho criterion. Data from four sites suggest that dissolved-oxygen concentrations may have decreased over time. The pH at 15 sites sometimes fell outside the range specified (6.5-9.0) for the protection of aquatic organisms in Idaho streams. Values exceeded 9.0 at 10 sites, probably because of excessive algal photosynthetic activity in waters where carbonate rocks are present. Values were sometimes less than 6.5 at five sites in areas of mountain bedrock geology where pH is likely to be naturally low. Mining activities also may contribute to low pH at some of these sites. Inorganic nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations commonly exceeded those considered sufficient for supporting excess algal production (0.3 and 0.1 milligrams per liter, respectively). Data from a few sites suggest that nitrogen and(or) phosphorus concentrations might be changing over time. Low concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus at six sites, most representing forested basins, might make them good candidates as reference sites that represent naturally occurring nutrient concentrations. Trace elements examined for this report were cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, selenium, and zinc. In water, many trace-element concentrations were below the minimum analytical reporting levels. Concentrations of cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc generally were highest in mined and other mineral-rich basins in northern Idaho. Concentrations of mercury were

Idaho↗

USGS2000

Regional evaluation of evapotranspiration in the Everglades

Nine sites in the Florida Everglades were selected and instrumented for collection of data necessary for evapotranspiration-determination using the Bowen-ratio energy-budget method. The sites were selected to represent the sawgrass or cattail marshes, wet prairie, and open-water areas that constitute most of the natural Everglades system. At each site, measurements necessary for evapotranspiration (ET) calculation and modeling were automatically made and stored on-site at 15- or 30-minute intervals. Data collected included air temperature and humidity at two heights, wind speed and direction, incoming solar radiation, net solar radiation, water level and temperature, soil moisture content, soil temperature, soil heat flux, and rainfall. Data summarized in this report were collected from January 1996 through December 1997, and the development of site-specific and regional models of ET for this period is described. Latent heat flux is the energy flux density equivalent of the ET rate. Modified Priestley-Taylor models of latent heat flux as a function of selected independent variables were developed at each site. These models were used to fill in periods of missing latent heat flux measurement, and to develop regional models of the entire Everglades region. The regional models may be used to estimate ET in wet prairie, sawgrass or cattail marsh, and open-water portions of the natural Everglades system. The models are not applicable to forested areas or to the brackish areas adjacent to Florida Bay. Two types of regional models were developed. One type of model uses measurements of available energy at a site, together with incoming solar energy and water depth, to estimate hourly ET. This available-energy model requires site data for net radiation, water heat storage, and soil heat flux, as well as data for incoming solar radiation and water depth. The other type of model requires only incoming solar energy, air temperature, and water depth data to provide estimates of hourly ET. The second model thus uses data that are more readily available than the data required for the available-energy model. Computed ET mean annual totals for all nine sites for the 1996-97 period ranged from 42.4 inches per year at a site where the water level is below land surface for several months each year to 57.4 inches per year at an open-water site with no emergent vegetation. Although the density of photosynthetically-active plant leaves has been shown to relate directly to ET in some studies, it does not appear to relate directly to ET in the Everglades, based on comparison of annual ET data with leaf-area index, defined as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), data from satellite imagery. NDVI and ET appear to be inversely related in the Everglades. The greatest ET rates occurred at open-water sites where the NDVI data indicated the lowest leaf-area index. Among the remaining vegetated sites, there is no clear relation between ET and NDVI, though the highest ET rate corresponded to the lowest NDVI and one of the lowest ET rates corresponded to the highest NDVI value. The variation in ET follows a seasonal pattern, with lowest monthly ET totals occurring in December through February, and highest ET occurring in May through August. The greatest range in monthly ET among all nine sites for the 2-year period occurred at site 3: from 1.81 inches in December 1997 to 6.84 inches in July 1996. A study to compare the Bowen-ratio/energy balance method of ET measurement with the eddy-correlation method was done at one site from June 22, 1998, through September 28, 1998. This comparison indicated that both methods gave comparable values of the Bowen ratio, but there was a considerable difference in available energy measured by the two methods. The mean of all 30-minute measured turbulent heat fluxes from the eddy-correlation apparatus for June 22 through September 29, 1998, was 137.4 watts per square meter, and the mean of the corresponding measured energy was 163.6 watts per square meter, or about 20 percent greater. The disagreement in mean energy fluxes measured by the two methods is problematical and is not fully understood. Although the difference seems to be related to friction velocity, and is practically non-existent at values of friction velocity greater than 0.3 meter per second, the "correctness" of either method cannot be determined with the data available.

Florida↗

USGS1992

Measurement of filtration rates by infaunal bivalves in a recirculating flume

A flume system and protocol for measuring the filtration rate of infaunal bivalves is described. Assemblages of multi-sized clams, at natural densities and in normal filter-feeding positions, removed phytoplankton suspended in a unidirectional flow of water. The free-stream velocity and friction velocity of the flow, and bottom roughness height were similar to those in natural estuarine waters. Continuous variations in phytoplankton (Chroomonas salinay) cell density were used to measure the filtration rate of the suspension-feeding clam Potamocorbula amurensis for periods of 2 to 28 h. Filtration rates of P. amurensis varied from 100 to 580 liters (gd)-1 over a free-stream velocity range of 9 to 25 cm s-1. Phytoplankton loss rates were usually constant throughout the experiments. Our results suggest that suspension-feeding by infaunal bivalves is sensitive to flow velocity. ?? 1992 Springer-Verlag.

Marine Biology↗

USGS1947

Ground-water conditions and problems in the Upper Mississippi River Embayment

The Upper Mississippi River Embayment is a region of about 45,000 square miles in the Mississippi River Valley extending from the vicinity of the 34th parallel northward to the mouth of the Ohio River. It includes parts of Arkansas, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Missouri. In 1940 about 2,700,000 people inhabited the region.Ground water is one of the most valuable natural resources of the region. It is estimated that 95 per cent of all the water used in the Upper Embayment comes from the ground.Structurally the Embayment is a downwarped, downfaulted trough in Paleozoic rocks, in which have been deposited sediments ranging in age from Cretaceous to Recent. Very productive water-bearing formations extend throughout most of the region but the total quantity of water perennially available is unknown, and little information is available on the quality of the water.The formations comprise a natural hydraulic system underlying parts of several States, and a study of the geology and hydrology of the entire region is needed. Such a study is necessary because additional ground-water supplies will be required with the future development of the region. In order to develop the region wisely the quantity and quality of the water perennially available must be known.

Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Kentucky, Missouri, T↗

USGS2012

Distribution and condition of young-of-year Lost River and shortnose suckers in the Williamson River Delta restoration project and Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon, 2008-10--Final Report

The Nature Conservancy undertook restoration of the Williamson River Delta Preserve with a primary goal "to restore and maintain the diversity of habitats that are essential to the endangered [Lost River sucker ( Deltistes luxatus ) and shortnose sucker ( Chasmistes brevirostris )] while, at the same time, minimizing disturbance and adverse impacts" (David Evans and Associates, 2005). The Western Fisheries Research Center of the U.S. Geological Survey was asked by the Bureau of Reclamation to assist The Nature Conservancy in assessing the use of the restoration by larval and juvenile suckers. We identified five obtainable objectives to gauge the habitat suitability for young-of-year suckers in the permanently flooded portions of the two most recently restored sections (Goose Bay and Tulana) of the Williamson River Delta Preserve (hereafter referred to as the Preserve) and its effects on the distribution and health of larval and juvenile suckers. Several of these objectives were met through collaborations with The Nature Conservancy, Oregon State University, Oregon Water Science Center, and Leetown Science Center. Our findings were in concurrence with those of The Nature Conservancy, who found that the Preserve supported young-of-year suckers at least as well as adjacent lake habitats (Erdman and others, 2011) despite the prevalence of non-native and piscivorous species in the system. The Preserve was recolonized by all fishes in the regional species pool, both native and non-native, between the time each portion of the Preserve (Goose Bay and Tulana) was inundated in autumn and the following spring. A large number of fish capable of preying on endangered larval suckers and a few fish that could prey on juvenile suckers were captured in the Preserve, but these species were no more abundant in the Preserve than in adjacent lakes. Larvae and age-0, age-1, and age-2 juvenile Lost River and shortnose suckers were captured in the Preserve, Upper Klamath Lake, and Agency Lake, indicating that these species reared in restored and unaltered lake habitats. We captured too few larval suckers to examine patterns in spatial or temporal distribution. Once endangered suckers transitioned into juveniles, as defined by morphological development, they continued to disperse from shallow to deep water throughout the Preserve and into adjacent lakes. Age-1 and age-2 suckers captured throughout the Preserve and in adjacent lake habitats, especially in spring, show continued use of restored habitat by these species. Quantitative examination of habitat use by age-0 juvenile suckers that accounted for imperfect detection indicated the portion of habitat used increased throughout July and August each year until the entire study area was used by one or more age-0 juvenile suckers by the end of August. Our rigorous evaluation showed both restored Preserve and unaltered lake habitats were equally used by age-0 juvenile suckers. Although all sampled habitats were used, multi-state occupancy models indicated that more age-0 suckers occupied shallow rather than deep habitats within the range of depths we sampled (0.5–4.3 m). We were unable to compare health and condition of juvenile suckers among habitats, due to their movement among habitats. However, documentation of length-weight relationships, afflictions and deformities, and histology indicated juvenile suckers captured in all habitats maintained a similar level of health among the 3 years of our study.

Oregon↗

USGS2006

Chapter A6. Section 6.2. Dissolved oxygen

Accurate data for the concentration of dissolved oxygen in surface and ground waters are essential for documenting changes in environmental water resources that result from natural phenomena and human activities. Dissolved oxygen is necessary in aquatic systems for the survival and growth of many aquatic organisms and is used as an indicator of the health of surface-water bodies. This section of the National Field Manual (NFM) includes U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) guidance and protocols for four methods to determine dissolved-oxygen concentrations: the amperometric, luminescent-sensor, spectrophotometric, and iodometric (Winkler) methods. Each chapter of the National Field Manual is published separately and revised periodically. Newly published and revised chapters will be announced on the USGS Home Page on the World Wide Web under 'New Publications of the U.S. Geological Survey.'

Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations↗

USGS2002

Comparison of dissolved oxygen and aquatic biota between a State 303(d)-listed stream segment and USGS biological reference sites in the San Jacinto River Basin, Texas, 2000

About 30 percent of the 238 water bodies on the 2000 State of Texas 303(d) list of impaired or threatened waters are included for not meeting optimum conditions for aquatic life (Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission, 2000). Most of the water bodies on the list were assessed using water-column measures such as concentrations of dissolved oxygen (DO) and total metals as surrogates for aquatic biological data. Many water bodies were listed because of low concentrations of DO or potentially toxic dissolved metals such as lead; ambient toxicity to nonresident (laboratory) aquatic organisms also could have been a reason for listing. The Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission (TNRCC) has emphasized the use of aquatic biological data to determine if a water body should be included or removed from the 303(d) list. The standards used to determine whether a water body should be on the State 303(d) list generally are statewide standards that have not been adjusted for regional or watershed-scale differences that reflect variability across Texas. Such is the case for DO, which is one of the more common surrogate measures used in the listing of stream segments that do not meet optimum conditions for aquatic life. The statewide minimum concentration of DO to meet optimal conditions for aquatic life is 5.0 milligrams per liter. Many water bodies in Texas with few, if any, anthropogenic influences might have DO concentrations below 5.0 milligrams per liter, especially in the late summer when water temperatures peak and streamflows are at minimums for the year.

Texas↗