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USGS2002

Water and sediment study of the Snake River watershed, Colorado, Oct. 9-12, 2001

The Snake River watershed, located upstream from Dillon Reservoir in the central mountains of Colorado, has been affected by historical base-metal mining. Trout stocked in the Snake River for recreational purposes do not survive through the winter. Sediment cores analyzed by previous investigators from the reservoir revealed elevated concentrations of base metals and mercury. We collected 36 surface water samples (filtered and unfiltered) and 38 streambed-sediment samples from streams in the Snake River watershed. Analyses of the sediment and water samples show that concentrations of several metals exceed aquatic life standards in one or both media. Ribbon maps showing dissolved concentrations of zinc, cadmium, copper, and manganese in water (0.45-micron filtered and corrected for the ameliorating effect of hardness), and copper, cadmium, and zinc in sediment indicate reaches where toxic effects on trout would be expected and stream reaches where toxicity standards for rainbow, brown, and brook trout are exceeded. Instantaneous loads for sulfate, strontium, iron, cadmium, copper, and zinc were calculated from 0.45-micron-filtered water concentrations and discharge measurements were made at each site. Sulfate and strontium behave conservatively, whereas copper, cadmium, and zinc are reactive. The dissolved copper load entering the reservoir is less than 20 percent of the value calculated from some upper reaches; copper is transferred to suspended and or streambed sediment by sorption to iron oxyhydroxides. Higher percentages of zinc and cadmium reach the reservoir in dissolved form; however, load calculations indicate that some of these metals are also precipitated out of solution. The most effective remediation activities should be concentrated on reducing the dissolved loads of zinc, cadmium, and copper in two reaches of lower Peru Creek between the confluence with the Snake River and Cinnamon Gulch. We analyzed all streambed sediment for mercury and selected streambed-sediment and reservoir core samples for lead isotope signatures. Results indicate that the mercury anomaly in the reservoir sediment was not from any known source in the Snake River, Blue River, or Tenmile Creek watersheds. Its source remains an enigma.

Colorado↗

USGS2014

Potential effects of existing and proposed groundwater withdrawals on water levels and natural groundwater discharge in Snake Valley, Juab and Millard Counties, Utah, White Pine County, Nevada, and surrounding areas in Utah and Nevada

Applications have been filed for several water-right changes and new water rights, with total withdrawals of about 1,800 acre-feet per year, in Snake Valley near Eskdale and Partoun, Utah. The Bureau of Land Management has identified 11 sites where the Bureau of Land Management holds water rights and 7 other springs of interest that could be affected by these proposed groundwater withdrawals. This report presents a hydrogeologic analysis of areas within Snake Valley to assess the potential effects on Bureau of Land Management water rights and other springs of interest resulting from existing and proposed groundwater withdrawals. A previously developed numerical groundwater-flow model was used to quantify potential groundwater drawdown and the capture, or groundwater withdrawals that results in depletion, of natural discharge resulting from existing and proposed groundwater withdrawals within Snake Valley. Existing groundwater withdrawals were simulated for a 50-year period prior to adding the newly proposed withdrawals to bring the model from pre-development conditions to the start of 2014. After this initial 50-year period, existing withdrawals, additional proposed withdrawals, and consequent effects were simulated for periods of 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 years. Downward trends in water levels measured in wells indicate that the existing groundwater withdrawals in Snake Valley are affecting water levels. The numerical model simulated similar downward trends in water levels. The largest simulated drawdowns caused by existing groundwater withdrawals ranged between 10 and 26 feet and were near the centers of the agricultural areas by Callao, Eskdale, Baker, Garrison, and along the Utah-Nevada state line in southern Snake Valley. The largest simulated water-level declines were at the Bureau of Land Management water-rights sites near Eskdale, Utah, where simulated drawdowns ranged between 2 and 8 feet at the start of 2014. These results were consistent with, but lower than, observations from several wells monitored by the U.S. Geological Survey that indicated water-level declines of 6 to 18 feet near the Eskdale area since the mid-1970s and 1980s. The model cells where the simulated capture of natural groundwater discharge resulting from the existing withdrawals was greatest were those containing Kane Spring, Caine Spring, and Unnamed Spring 5, where existing groundwater withdrawals capture 13 to 29 percent of the total simulated natural discharge in these cells. Simulated drawdown and simulated capture of natural groundwater discharge resulting from the proposed withdrawals started in as few as 5 years at seven of the sites. After 100 years, four sites showed simulated drawdowns ranging between 1 and 2 feet; eight sites showed simulated drawdowns ranging between 0.1 and 0.9 feet; and five sites showed no simulated drawdown resulting from the proposed withdrawals. The largest amounts of simulated capture of natural groundwater discharge resulting from the proposed withdrawals after 100 years were in the model cells containing Coyote Spring, Kane Spring, and Caine Spring, which had capture amounts ranging between 5.5 and 9.1 percent of the total simulated natural discharge in these cells.

Nevada, Utah↗

USGS2019

Numerical model simulations of potential changes in water levels and capture of natural discharge from groundwater withdrawals in Snake Valley and adjacent areas, Utah and Nevada

The National Park Service (NPS) and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) are concerned about cumulative effects of groundwater development on groundwater-dependent resources managed by, and other groundwater resources of interest to, these agencies in Snake Valley and adjacent areas, Utah and Nevada. Of particular concern to the NPS and BLM are withdrawals from all existing approved, perfected, certified, permitted, and vested groundwater rights in Snake Valley totaling about 55,272 acre-feet per year (acre-ft/yr), and from several senior water-right applications filed by the Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA) totaling 50,680 acre-ft/yr. An existing groundwater-flow model of the eastern Great Basin was used to investigate where potential drawdown and capture of natural discharge is likely to result from potential groundwater withdrawals from existing groundwater rights in Snake Valley, and from groundwater withdrawals proposed in several applications filed by the SNWA. To evaluate the potential effects of the existing and proposed SNWA groundwater withdrawals, 11 withdrawal scenarios were simulated. All scenarios were run as steady state to estimate the ultimate long-term effects of the simulated withdrawals. This assessment provides a general understanding of the relative susceptibility of the groundwater resources of interest to the NPS and BLM, and the groundwater system in general, to existing and future groundwater development in the study area. At the NPS and BLM groundwater resource sites of interest, simulated drawdown resulting from withdrawals based on existing approved, perfected, certified, permitted, and vested groundwater rights within Snake Valley ranged between 0 and 159 feet (ft) without accounting for irrigation return flow, and between 0 and 123 ft with accounting for irrigation return flow. With the addition of proposed SNWA withdrawals of 35,000 acre-ft/yr (equal to the Unallocated Groundwater portion allotted to Nevada in a draft interstate agreement), simulated drawdowns at the NPS and BLM sites of interest increased to range between 0 and 2,074 ft without irrigation return flow, and between 0 and 2,002 ft with irrigation return flow. With the addition of the proposed SNWA withdrawals of an amount equal to the full application amounts (50,680 acre-ft/yr), simulated drawdowns at the NPS and BLM sites of interest increased to range between 1 and 3,119 ft without irrigation return flow, and between 1 and 3,044 ft with irrigation return flow. At the NPS and BLM groundwater resource sites of interest, simulated capture of natural discharge resulting from withdrawals based on existing groundwater rights in Snake Valley, both with and without irrigation return flow, ranged between 0 and 100 percent; simulated capture of 100 percent occurred at four sites. With the addition of proposed SNWA withdrawals of an amount equal to the Unallocated Groundwater portion allotted to Nevada in the draft interstate agreement, simulated capture of 100 percent occurred at nine additional sites without irrigation return flow, and at eight additional sites with irrigation return flow. With the addition of the proposed SNWA withdrawals of an amount equal to the full application amounts, simulated capture of 100 percent occurred at 11 additional sites without irrigation return flow, and at 9 additional sites with irrigation return flow. The large simulated drawdowns produced in the scenarios that include large portions or all of the proposed SNWA withdrawals indicate that the groundwater system may not be able to support the amount of withdrawals from the proposed points of diversion (PODs) in the current SNWA water-right applications. Therefore, four additional scenarios were simulated where the withdrawal rates at the SNWA PODs were constrained by not allowing drawdowns to be deeper than the assumed depth of the PODs (about 2,000 ft). In the constrained scenarios, total withdrawals at the SNWA PODs were reduced to about 48 percent of the Unallocated Groundwater portion allotted to Nevada (35,000 acre-ft/yr reduced to 16,817 acre-ft/yr or 16,914 acre-ft/yr, without or with irrigation return flow, respectively), and about 44 percent of the full application amounts (50,680 acre-ft/yr reduced to 22,048 acre-ft/yr or 22,165 acre-ft/yr, without or with irrigation return flow, respectively). This indicates that the SNWA may need to add more PODs, or PODs in different locations, in order to withdraw large portions or all of the groundwater that has been applied for. At the NPS and BLM groundwater resource sites of interest, simulated drawdown resulting from the addition of the constrained SNWA withdrawals applied to the Unallocated Groundwater amount ranged between 0 and 290 ft without irrigation return flow, and between 0 and 252 ft with irrigation return flow. With the addition of the constrained SNWA withdrawals applied to the full application amounts, simulated drawdowns at the NPS and BLM sites of interest ranged between 0 and 358 ft without irrigation return flow, and between 0 and 313 ft with irrigation return flow. At the NPS and BLM groundwater resource sites of interest, with the addition of the constrained SNWA withdrawals applied to the Unallocated Groundwater amount, simulated capture of 100 percent of the natural discharge occurred at five additional sites without irrigation return flow, and at two additional sites with irrigation return flow (in addition to the four captured from existing water rights both with and without irrigation return flow). With the addition of the constrained SNWA withdrawals applied to the full application amounts, simulated capture of 100 percent occurred at six additional sites both with and without irrigation return flow.

Nevada, Utah↗

USGS1979

Suspended- and bedload-sediment transport in the Snake and Clearwater rivers in the vicinity of Lewiston, Idaho, August 1976 through July 1978

Impoundment of water in the Snake River and Clearwater River arms behind Lower Granite Dam (see cover map) began in June 1975. At this time, Lower Granite Reservoir and Lock facilities, constructed by the USACE (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers), Walla Walla District, became operational. Construction and operation of this facility necessitated collection of hydrologic data that did not exist prior to construction. The USACE requested the USGS (U.S. Geological Survey) to collect hydraulic- and channel-geometry data and describe sediment-transport characteristics, beginning in the spring of 1972. This report summarizes information collected during August 1976 through July 1978 and is the fifth in a series of reports designed to release hydrologic data on a timely basis. Although some of the data were collected during the late summer and fall periods (August through December) of 1976 and 1977, most were collected during the spring runoff periods of 1977 and 1978. Therefore, for convenience, data contained in this report will be referred to as the 1977-78 data. Because this is primarily a basic-data report, no interpretation of the data is provided. This report presents tables of selected data collected and computations compiled since the 1976 report (Seitz, 1976). Most of the tabular data are also presented on graphs. Some of the graphs show plots of data since 1972~ others show plots of only the 1977-78 data. Relatively minor amounts of bedload were transported during the 1977 drought period. Therefore, regular scheduled sampling of the bedload was impractical. Only two bedload samples were collected from the Clearwater River in 1977. The resultant data are included in tables 10, 12, and 14, and figure 6. All bedload data in this report should be considered tentative, pending completion of sampler-calibration studies and possible adjustment of the data to correct for sampler efficiency. An analysis of the middle Snake River streamflow record was made during 1977. The streamflow rating for the Snake River near Anatone, Washington, gage was found to be in error at high stages. The streamflow record for water years 1974 and 1975 was revised and published with 1976 water-year data (Water Resources Data for Idaho, Water Year 1976). The revised Snake River near Anatone streamflow rating was used to recompute the sediment-discharge rating curve (fig. 3). This study program is funded by the USACE through a cooperative agreement with the USGS. All field work, laboratory analysis, and compilation of data are being conducted by the USGS. Data collection is scheduled to terminate at the end of the 1979 runoff season. A reanalysis of all data collected since the start of the program will correct all provisional records since 1972, including the 1974, 1975, and 1976 years for the Snake River near Anatone station.

Idaho↗

USGS2008

An Update of Hydrologic Conditions and Distribution of Selected Constituents in Water, Snake River Plain Aquifer and Perched-Water Zones, Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho, Emphasis 2002-05

Radiochemical and chemical wastewater discharged since 1952 to infiltration ponds, evaporation ponds, and disposal wells at the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) has affected water quality in the Snake River Plain aquifer and perched-water zones underlying the INL. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy, maintains ground-water monitoring networks at the INL to determine hydrologic trends, and to delineate the movement of radiochemical and chemical wastes in the aquifer and in perched-water zones. This report presents an analysis of water-level and water-quality data collected from aquifer and perched-water wells in the USGS ground-water monitoring networks during 2002-05. Water in the Snake River Plain aquifer primarily moves through fractures and interflow zones in basalt, generally flows southwestward, and eventually discharges at springs along the Snake River. The aquifer is recharged primarily from infiltration of irrigation water, infiltration of streamflow, ground-water inflow from adjoining mountain drainage basins, and infiltration of precipitation. From March-May 2001 to March-May 2005, water levels in wells declined throughout the INL area. The declines ranged from about 3 to 8 feet in the southwestern part of the INL, about 10 to 15 feet in the west central part of the INL, and about 6 to 11 feet in the northern part of the INL. Water levels in perched water wells declined also, with the water level dropping below the bottom of the pump in many wells during 2002-05. For radionuclides, concentrations that equal 3s, wheres s is the sample standard deviation, represent a measurement at the minimum detectable concentration, or 'reporting level'. Detectable concentrations of radiochemical constituents in water samples from wells in the Snake River Plain aquifer at the INL generally decreased or remained constant during 2002-05. Decreases in concentrations were attributed to decreased rates of radioactive-waste disposal, radioactive decay, changes in waste-disposal methods, and dilution from recharge and underflow. In October 2005, reportable concentrations of tritium in ground water ranged from 0.51+or-0.12 to 11.5+or-0.6 picocuries per milliliter and the tritium plume extended south-southwestward in the general direction of ground-water flow. Tritium concentrations in water from several wells southwest of the Idaho Nuclear Technology and Engineering Center (INTEC) decreased or remained constant as they had during 1998-2001, with the exception of well USGS 47, which increased a few picocuries per milliliter. Most wells completed in shallow perched water at the Reactor Technology Complex (RTC) were dry during 2002---05. Tritium concentrations in deep perched water exceeded the reporting level in nine wells at the RTC. The tritium concentration in water from one deep perched water well exceeded the reporting level at the INTEC. Concentrations of strontium-90 in water from 14 of 34 wells sampled during October 2005 exceeded the reporting level. Concentrations ranged from 2.2+or-0.7 to 33.1+or-1.2 picocuries per liter. However, concentrations from most wells remained relatively constant or decreased since 1989. Strontium-90 has not been detected within the eastern Snake River Plain aquifer beneath the RTC partly because of the exclusive use of waste-disposal ponds and lined evaporation ponds rather than the disposal well for radioactive-wastewater disposal at RTC. At the RTC, strontium-90 concentrations in water from six wells completed in deep perched ground water exceeded the reporting level during 2002-05. At the INTEC, the reporting level was exceeded in water from three wells completed in deep perched ground water. During 2002-05, concentrations of plutonium-238, and plutonium-239, -240 (undivided), and americium-241 were less than the reporting level in water samples from all wells sampled at the INL. During 2002-05, concentrations of cesium-137 in water from all wells sa

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2010

An update of hydrologic conditions and distribution of selected constituents in water, Snake River Plain aquifer and perched groundwater zones, Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho, emphasis 2006-08

Since 1952, radiochemical and chemical wastewater discharged to infiltration ponds (also called percolation ponds), evaporation ponds, and disposal wells at the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) has affected water quality in the eastern Snake River Plain aquifer and perched groundwater zones underlying the INL. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy, maintains groundwater monitoring networks at the INL to determine hydrologic trends, and to delineate the movement of radiochemical and chemical wastes in the aquifer and in perched groundwater zones. This report presents an analysis of water-level and water-quality data collected from aquifer and perched groundwater wells in the USGS groundwater monitoring networks during 2006-08. Water in the Snake River Plain aquifer primarily moves through fractures and interflow zones in basalt, generally flows southwestward, and eventually discharges at springs along the Snake River. The aquifer primarily is recharged from infiltration of irrigation water, infiltration of streamflow, groundwater inflow from adjoining mountain drainage basins, and infiltration of precipitation. From March-May 2005 to March-May 2008, water levels in wells generally remained constant or rose slightly in the southwestern corner of the INL. Water levels declined in the central and northern parts of the INL. The declines ranged from about 1 to 3 feet in the central part of the INL, to as much as 9 feet in the northern part of the INL. Water levels in perched groundwater wells around the Advanced Test Reactor Complex (ATRC) also declined. Detectable concentrations of radiochemical constituents in water samples from wells in the Snake River Plain aquifer at the INL generally decreased or remained constant during 2006-08. Decreases in concentrations were attributed to decreased rates of radioactive-waste disposal, radioactive decay, changes in waste-disposal methods, and dilution from recharge and underflow. In April or October 2008, reportable concentrations of tritium in groundwater ranged from 810 ? 70 to 8,570 ? 190 picocuries per liter (pCi/L), and the tritium plume extended south-southwestward in the general direction of groundwater flow. Tritium concentrations in water from wells completed in shallow perched groundwater at the ATRC were less than the reporting levels. Tritium concentrations in deep perched groundwater exceeded the reporting level in 11 wells during at least one sampling event during 2006-08 at the ATRC. Tritium concentrations from one or more zones in each well were reportable in water samples collected at various depths in six wells equipped with multi-level WestbayTM packer sampling systems. Concentrations of strontium-90 in water from 24 of 52 aquifer wells sampled during April or October 2008 exceeded the reporting level. Concentrations ranged from 2.2 ? 0.7 to 32.7 ? 1.2 pCi/L. Strontium-90 has not been detected within the eastern Snake River Plain aquifer beneath the ATRC partly because of the exclusive use of waste-disposal ponds and lined evaporation ponds rather than using the disposal well for radioactive-wastewater disposal at ATRC. At the ATRC, the strontium-90 concentration in water from one well completed in shallow perched groundwater was less than the reporting level. During at least one sampling event during 2006-08, concentrations of strontium-90 in water from nine wells completed in deep perched groundwater at the ATRC were greater than reporting levels. Concentrations ranged from 2.1?0.7 to 70.5?1.8 pCi/L. At the Idaho Nuclear Technology and Engineering Center (INTEC), the reporting level was exceeded in water from two wells completed in deep perched groundwater. During 2006-08, concentrations of cesium-137, plutonium-238, and plutonium-239, -240 (undivided), and americium-241 were less than the reporting level in water samples from all wells and all zones in wells equipped with multi-level WestbayTM packer sampling systems

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS1994

Analysis of data on nutrients and organic compounds in ground water in the upper Snake River basin, Idaho and western Wyoming, 1980-91

Nutrient and organic compound data from the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency STORET data bases provided information for development of a preliminary conceptual model of spatial and temporal ground-water quality in the upper Snake River Basin. Nitrite plus nitrate (as nitrogen; hereafter referred to as nitrate) concentrations exceeded the Federal drinking-water regulation of 10 milligrams per liter in three areas in Idaho" the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, the area north of Pocatello (Fort Hall area), and the area surrounding Burley. Water from many wells in the Twin Falls area also contained elevated (greater than two milligrams per liter) nitrate concentrations. Water from domestic wells contained the highest median nitrate concentrations; water from industrial and public supply wells contained the lowest. Nitrate concentrations decreased with increasing well depth, increasing depth to water (unsaturated thickness), and increasing depth below water table (saturated thickness). Kjeldahl nitrogen concentrations decreased with increasing well depth and depth below water table. The relation between kjeldahl nitrogen concentrations and depth to water was poor. Nitrate and total phosphorus concentrations in water from wells were correlated among three hydrogeomorphic regions in the upper Snake River Basin, Concentrations of nitrate were statistically higher in the eastern Snake River Plain and local aquifers than in the tributary valleys. There was no statistical difference in total phosphorus concentrations among the three hydrogeomorphic regions. Nitrate and total phosphorus concentrations were correlated with land-use classifications developed using the Geographic Information Retrieval and Analysis System. Concentrations of nitrate were statistically higher in area of agricultural land than in areas of rangeland. There was no statistical difference in concentrations between rangeland and urban land and between urban land and agricultural land. There was no statistical difference in total phosphorus concentrations among any of the land-use classifications. Nitrate and total phosphorus concentrations also were correlated with land-use classifications developed by the Idaho Department of Water Resources for the Idaho part of the upper Snake River Basin. Nitrate concentrations were statistically higher in areas of irrigated agriculture than in areas of dryland agriculture and rangeland. There was no statistical difference in total phosphorus concentrations among any of the Idaho Department of Water Resources land-use classifications. Data were sufficient to assess long-term trends of nitrate concentrations in water from only eight wells: four wells north of Burley and four wells northwest of Pocatello. The trend in nitrate concentrations in water from all wells in upward. The following organic compounds were detected in ground water in the upper Snake River Basin: cyanazine, 2,4-D DDT, dacthal, diazinon, dichloropropane, dieldrin, malathion, and metribuzin. Of 211 wells sampled for organic compounds, water from 17 contained detectable concentrations.

Idaho;Montana;Nevada;Utah;Wyoming↗

USGS1957

Ground-water possibilities south of the Snake River between Twin Falls and Pocatello, Idaho

The Snake River Plain and tributary valleys south of the Snake River between Twin Falls and Pocatello, Idaho (here called the South Side area), contain about 180,000 acres of irrigated land, of which 145,000 acres is irrigated with surface water and 35,000 is irrigated wholly or partly with ground water. The area also contains more than 200,000 acres of arable land that is idle or used only for grazing because it lacks irrigation water. Most of the surface-water supply is already used or reserved, and some land now irrigated needs supplemental water. The climate of the area ranges from semiarid on the Snake River Plain to subhumid on higher mountains. The average annual precipitation at lowland stations ranges from about 9 to 12 inches. The principal sources of ground water are extrusive volcanic rocks of silicic to intermediate composition, basalt, and sand and gravel. Ground water occurs commonly under artesian conditions in the silicic to intermediate volcanic rocks and in sand and gravel tongues and lenses in lake beds. Basalt and alluvium commonly contain unconfined water. The area of this report is divided into 13 roughly defined ground-water districts, some of which are further divided into subdistricts. The known geologic and hydrologic factors of each area are summarized and a preliminary appraisal is made of the ground-water resources in relation to land resources and to the regimen of streams. The current state of development, proposed new developments, and ground-water potential of each division are discussed. The Dry Creek district is the most intensively irrigated area in Idaho in which wells furnish the water supply. Ground water occurs under both artesian and water-table conditions. More than 53,000 acre-feet of ground water was pumped in 1954. There are large areas of undeveloped arable land in the district, but pumping in some parts of the district currently is approaching or surpasses the perennial yield of the ground-water reservoirs. The Golden Valley district contains considerable arable land but, owing to the relatively great depth to water and the generally poor yield of wells, the prospects for extensive ground-water development are not promising. In the Oakley district ground water is pumped from alluvium to supplement surface water and to bring new land into production. The ground water will be fully exploited within a few years if the present rate of development by individual landowners continues. The total area of nonirrigated land far exceeds the amount that could be irrigated with indigenous ground water. Both artesian and unconfined water occur in the Burley district. Most existing wells tap unconfined water in the southern part where there are still large tracts of idle arable land. Pumping lifts are rather high. The South Walcott district contains a considerable acreage of arable land and is underlain by excellent aquifers. The effect that heavy pumping would have on the flow of the Raft and Snake Rivers and on seepage from Lake Walcott is Taot well understood. Presumably substantial pumping would be feasible without direct deleterious effects. The Raft River basin, including the Elba and Almo-Yost subbasins, is the largest district in the South Side area. Ground water occurs in both unconfined and artesian aquifers. Possibly as much as 150,000 acres of dry land is irrigable, but the ground-water supply presumably is sufficient to irrigate only a few thousand acres in addition to the approximately 40,000 now irrigated with surface and ground water. Pumping of wells at some locations would deplete the base flow of the Raft River and would be competitive with surface-water use. The United States Bureau of Reclamation has started construction of the Michaud Flats Irrigation Project in the Western Michaud Flats district. The adopted reclamation plan is to irrigate about 10,000 acres, using surface water pumped from American Falls Reservoir and ground water pumped from wells. Ground water in part of the district is tributary to the reservoir. Withdrawals of ground water will be compensated in part by the return of waste water to the reservoir and to the Snake River. The Eastern Michaud Flats district contains more arable land and has better aquifers than the Western Michaud Flats district, but pumping might reduce noticeably the discharge of ground water to the American Falls Reservoir. The Bureau of Indian Affairs plans to develop about 13,600 acres of Indian land with water stored in Palisades and American Falls Reservoirs. Virtually nothing is known about ground-water conditions in the Arbon and Rockland Valleys and in several small areas such as the Basin district, the Albion basin, and along the northern border of the Sublett Range. Preliminary studies have been made in three areas, the Dry Creek, Raft River, and Western. Michaud Flats districts. None has been studied comprehensively. The available data for each district are summarized in tabular form. Further investigations in the area are needed and should include accurate hydrologic mapping. Studies are needed of the sources and amounts of groundwater recharge, of the effects of ground-water withdrawals on the total water supply, and of numerous related problems.

Idaho↗

USGS1958

Records of springs in the Snake River valley, Jerome and Gooding Counties, Idaho, 1899-1947

Many springs and seeps discharge water from the north wall of the valley of the Snake River between Milner and Bliss, Idaho. These are fed by a large ground-water body lying east and north of the river, beneath the Snake River Plain. Much ground water is pumped on the plain, many irrigation wells having been drilled since 1946. Heavy withdrawal of ground water from wells may alter the discharge rates and regimens of the springs and may affect downstream flow of the river. For that reason, the historic record of discharge from the springs is an important part of the basis on which hydrologic changes can be determined. The records also would facilitate appraisal of the total groundwater resources of the Snake River Plain. This report brings together in a single volume all obtainable records for the period 1899-1947. The report also includes descriptive data and a brief history of work done. The springs occur in a 40-mile reach of the valley of the Snake River between Milner Dam and Bliss. Most are on the north side of the river but a few are on the south. The earliest measurements of record were made by F. S. Shirley and N. S. Dils, of the U. S. Geological Survey, in 1899. The next were by J. D. Stannard for the Idaho State Engineer and by Dils in 1902. Few measurements were made from 1903 to 1916. Somewhat more systematic measurements were made by the Geological Survey and by local agencies in 1917-20, 1923-25, and 1931, and at several intervals thereafter. In 1950 the Geological Survey began continuous, systematic measurements by installing and operating gaging stations on four representative springs and by making yearly direct measurements of all large springs. The recent records are not included in this report; they have been published yearly in a series of reports on stream discharge. The report includes lists of all published sources from which data were compiled, and cites many unpublished sources. The principal workers and agencies that have obtained records are listed also. The quality and accuracy of the compiled records, as might be expected, are not uniform, as the records were collected under varying circumstances, by many individuals, and according to changing or differing standards. The continuity is generally poor. Nevertheless, the compilation represents the base from which further work must start and is an extremely valuable record. It represents about 30 large springs and groups of springs, having discharge rates ranging from a fraction of a cubic foot per second to well over 1,000 cfs. Many smaller springs and seeps never have been measured. The fluctuation indexes for individual springs or groups range from 2 to 41 percent. The fluctuation index is the mean deviation of the discharge rate from the arithmetic mean, expressed as a percentage of the arithmetic mean. Although to some extent the indexes are a measure of the consistency of the record, they also seem to reflect actual differences in range of discharge, and they indicate that springs upstream in the Snake River valley fluctuate through a wider range than do those downstream. The fluctuations are rather slow, which reflects the equalizing influence of the large ground-water reservoir that supplies the springs.

Idaho↗

USGS2021

Soil reservoir dynamics of ophidiomyces ophidiicola, the causative agent of snake fungal disease

Wildlife diseases pose an ever-growing threat to global biodiversity. Understanding how wildlife pathogens are distributed in the environment and the ability of pathogens to form environmental reservoirs is critical to understanding and predicting disease dynamics within host populations. Snake fungal disease (SFD) is an emerging conservation threat to North American snake populations. The causative agent, Ophidiomyces ophidiicola (Oo), is detectable in environmentally derived soils. However, little is known about the distribution of Oo in the environment and the persistence and growth of Oo in soils. Here, we use quantitative PCR to detect Oo in soil samples collected from five snake dens. We compare the detection rates between soils collected from within underground snake hibernacula and associated, adjacent topsoil samples. Additionally, we used microcosm growth assays to assess the growth of Oo in soils and investigate whether the detection and growth of Oo are related to abiotic parameters and microbial communities of soil samples. We found that Oo is significantly more likely to be detected in hibernaculum soils compared to topsoils. We also found that Oo was capable of growth in sterile soil, but no growth occurred in soils with an active microbial community. A number of fungal genera were more abundant in soils that did not permit growth of Oo, versus those that did. Our results suggest that soils may display a high degree of both general and specific suppression of Oo in the environment. Harnessing environmental suppression presents opportunities to mitigate the impacts of SFD in wild snake populations.

Journal of Fungi↗

USGS1974

A progress report on results of test drilling and ground-water investigations of the Snake Plain aquifer, southeastern Idaho: Part 3: Lake Walcott-Bonanza Lake area

Direct-current resistivity soundings and exploratory drilling suggest that the basalt of the Snake River Group is relatively thin in the area along the Snake River that is topographically suitable for pumping large quantities of ground water in exchange for surface water. The formations underlying the Snake River Group appear to have low permeability and probably would not yield large amounts of water. Previous studies have indicated that the southern edge of the Snake Plain aquifer extended to the Snake River. Data presented in this report implies that, in general, the southern boundary should, in fact, be several miles north of the river.

Idaho↗

USGS2014

Research, monitoring, and evaluation of emerging issues and measures to recover the Snake River fall Chinook salmon ESU, 1/1/2012 – 12/31/2013: Annual report, 1991-029-00

The portion of the Snake River fall Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ESU that spawns upstream of Lower Granite Dam transitioned from low to high abundance during 1992–2014 in association with U.S. Endangered Species Act recovery efforts and other Federally mandated actions. This annual report focuses on (1) numeric and habitat use responses by natural- and hatchery-origin spawners, (2) phenotypic and numeric responses by natural-origin juveniles, and (3) predator responses in the Snake River upper and lower reaches as abundance of adult and juvenile fall Chinook Salmon increased. Spawners have located and used most of the available spawning habitat and that habitat is gradually approaching redd capacity. Timing of spawning and fry emergence has been relatively stable; whereas the timing of parr dispersal from riverine rearing habitat into Lower Granite Reservoir has become earlier as apparent abundance of juveniles has increased. Growth rate (g/d) and dispersal size of parr also declined as apparent abundance of juveniles increased. Passage timing of smolts from the two Snake River reaches has become earlier and downstream movement rate faster as estimated abundance of fall Chinook Salmon smolts in Lower Granite Reservoir has increased. In 2014, consumption of subyearlings by Smallmouth Bass was highest in the upper reach which had the highest abundance of Bass. With a few exceptions, predation tended to decrease seasonally from April through early July. A release of hatchery fish in mid-May significantly increased subyearling consumption by the following day. We estimated that over 600,000 subyearling fall Chinook Salmon were lost to Smallmouth Bass predation along the free-flowing Snake River in 2014. More information on predation is presented in Appendix A.3 (page 51). These findings coupled with stock-recruitment analyses presented in this report provide evidence for density-dependence in the Snake River reaches and in Lower Granite Reservoir that was influenced by the expansion of the recovery program. The long-term goal is to use the information covered here in a comprehensive modeling effort to conduct action effectiveness and uncertainty research and to inform fish population, hydrosystem, harvest, hatchery, and predation and invasive species management RM&E.

Oregon, Washington↗

USGS2015

Research, monitoring, and evaluation of emerging issues and measures to recover the Snake River fall Chinook salmon ESU, 1/1/2014 - 12/31/2014

Oregon, Washington↗

USGS2011

Hotspot: The Snake River geothermal drilling project - An overview

The Snake River volcanic province (SRP) overlies a thermal anomaly that extends deep into the mantle; it represents one of the highest heat flow provinces in North America, and an area with the highest calculated geothermal gradients. This makes the SRP one of the potentially highest producing geothermal districts in the United States. Elevated heat flow is typically highest along the margins of the topographic Snake River Plain and lowest along the axis of the plain, where thermal gradients are suppressed by the Snake River aquifer. Beneath this aquifer, however, thermal gradients rise again and may tap even higher heat flows associated with the intrusion of mafic magmas into a geophysically-imaged mid-crustal sill complex. The primary goal of this project is to evaluate geothermal potential in three distinct settings: (1) the high sub-aquifer geothermal gradient associated with the intrusion of mafic magmas and the release of crustal fluids from the associated wall rocks, (2) the valley-margin settings where surface heat flow may be driven by the up-flow of hot fluids along buried caldera ring-fault complexes, and (3) a more traditional fault-bounded basin with thick sedimentary cover. All settings are found within the central or western Snake River Plain and represent previously untested targets for geothermal exploration. Our first drill site tests the extent of geothermal resources along the axis of the plain, beneath the Snake River aquifer, in an area where elevated groundwater temperatures imply a significant flux of conductive or advective heat flow from below. Our second drill site assesses the geothermal potential of up-flow zones along a buried caldera margin, in an area of known geothermal potential (Twin Falls geothermal district). Further studies will include seismic reflection-refraction surveys, gravity-magnetic surveys, and downhole geophysical logs.

Idaho↗

USGS2022

Snake River fall Chinook salmon research and monitoring

In 2021, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) focused adult salmon survey efforts in the Snake River on deepwater redd searches and fish collection for parentage-based tagging (PBT) analyses. We use used a boat-mounted underwater video camera to count 93 deepwater redds at 17 of the 28 sites surveyed. Redd depths averaged 3.9 m. In conjunction with the Idaho Power Company, we collected genetic samples from 346 live fall Chinook salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ) and 15 carcasses at 48 unique geographic locations that spanned 90 river kilometers. Seventy-two fish were recovered at Eureka Bar (river kilometer [rkm] 307.1) and High Range (rkm 332.3), which accounted for 20% of all collected fish in 2021. Most (291 fish) post-spawned salmon were collected during the first two weeks of November around the peak of spawning. A summary of 2021 PBT results produced by the Idaho Power Company can be found in Appendix A.2. Beach seining and PIT tagging of subyearling fall Chinook salmon was conducted in Snake and Salmon rivers to obtain information on population metrics and growth as well as to provide data for ongoing life-cycle modeling. In the Snake River, we collected 13,710 subyearlings, tagged 6,299, and recaptured 981 (15.6%). Using 8-mm tags in 45–49-mm fish allowed us to represent an additional 40% of the juvenile population through PIT tagging beyond just using standard 9- and 12-mm tags. In the Salmon River, we captured 103 natural subyearlings with the majority (60%) of fish being captured at two sites: rkm 11 and 20. We tagged 27 subyearlings, and no fish were recaptured. In Lower Granite Reservoir, we captured 4,887 subyearlings, PIT tagged 2,585, and recaptured 312. Many of the subyearlings we tagged in the Snake River were detected passing Lower Granite Dam, but no fish tagged in the Salmon River were detected. In total we detected 673 (7.6%) tagged fish at Lower Granite Dam, and detection rates varied by tag size and passage route. More subyearlings were detected passing via the removable spill weir (RSW) earlier in the season while more fish were detected passing through the juvenile fish bypass system (JBS) later in the season. In general, fish tagged with 12-mm PIT tags had higher detection rates than fish tagged with smaller tags. Survival to Lower Granite Dam was low and ranged from 0.195 to 0.228. Growth of subyearlings was similar between riverine and reservoir reaches but was slightly lower in Lower Granite Reservoir. Only 19 subyearlings were recaptured at Lower Granite Dam in early autumn that predominantly originated from the Clearwater River (1 fish was from the Snake River). Mean standard deviation (SD) fork length and mass growth rates were 0.92±0.10 mm/d and 0.06±0.01 g/g/d, respectively.

Idaho, Oregon, Washington↗

USGS2024

Snake River Fall Chinook Salmon research and monitoring

In Chapter 1, we report on development and application of an integrated population model (IPM) for the natural-origin fall Chinook salmon population upstream of Lower Granite Dam. This year’s efforts represent the third update to the model. Initial efforts focused on generating juvenile and adult abundance estimates, with estimates of uncertainty, for informing the life-cycle model and estimating the effects of covariates on key demographic parameters. The goals of this year’s report are to 1) describe the modifications and advances made since the previous report, 2) to annually update and report the abundance estimates and other quantities used in the model, 3) to provide annual estimates of population parameters estimated by the IPM, and 4) to outline the next year’s tasks for advancing and/or applying the model. Since our last report on the life-cycle model, we have made a number of changes including: 1) incorporating jack abundance and age-structure data into the observation model, 2) changing smolt-to-adult survival (SAR) for subyearling and yearling to partial SARs that represent the joint probability surviving and entering the ocean at a given juvenile age, 3) combining age categories for rarely observed ages, 4) using scale data from unmarked fish to estimate age structure, and 5) generating composite life-cycle demographic parameters (cumulative capacity and productivity) from stage-specific parameters. We also generated juvenile abundance estimates, extended the model to include three additional brood years (1992– 2021), and ran the model to forecast returns to Lower Granite in 2022. For posterior medians of life stage-specific parameters, we estimated a mean productivity of 438 natural-origin juvenile recruits per female spawner, a capacity of 1.36 million juveniles, and a mean smolt-to-adult survival (SAR) of 1.2%. We detected strong density-dependent regulation, with juvenile recruits per spawner declining to about 50 juvenile recruits per female spawner at high spawner abundance. Across the entire life cycle, these stage-specific parameters resulted in a median cumulative intrinsic productivity of 1.93 adult female recruits per female spawner and a median equilibrium abundance of 2,851 female spawners (7,842 total spawners). Annual juvenile productivity varied from about 250–1,000 juveniles per spawner but displayed no temporal trends or patterns. For the three most recent brood years added to the model, recruits per spawner were higher than average but well within the range of uncertainty observed over the entire time series. In contrast to juvenile recruitment variability, SAR varied considerably among years and exhibited two periods of high survival (1996–2001 and 2007–2012) when SAR ranged from 2% to 6% and cumulative productivity ranged from 2 to 8 recruits per spawner. Partial SARs revealed that yearling outmigrants contributed substantially to the high SARs in the first high-survival period, but the second period was dominated by subyearlings. Yearlings contributed >30% to SAR in most years prior to 2007, and <30% since 2007. Our two-stage IPM provides a wealth of information about population dynamics affecting two key life-stage transitions (spawner to juvenile, and juvenile to spawner) centered on passage at Lower Granite Dam. By summarizing these stage-specific demographic parameters across the entire life cycle, this information will be useful for informing the recovery status of this threatened population. Whereas previous versions introduced hydrosystem and ocean covariates into the model, this phase of model development focused on solidifying the underlying model structure by introducing the concept of partial SARs and developing composite productivity and capacity as a function of underlying stage-specific parameters. Given this advancement, our next steps are to re-incorporate covariates into the model, specifically to understand how different factors affect partial SARs of subyearling and yearlings. Longer term model developments include:1) incorporating hatchery fish to explicitly estimate their survival as an alternative method for estimating natural-origin age composition, 2) expanding the model’s structure to include the three major spawning aggregates, 3) more explicitly modeling hydrosystem effects including transportation, and 4) using the model to assess retrospective and prospective management actions. In 2022, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) focused adult salmon survey efforts in the Snake River on deepwater redd searches and fish collection for parentage-based tagging (PBT) analyses. We use used a boat-mounted underwater video camera to count 99 deepwater redds at 16 of the 29 sites surveyed. Redd depths averaged 4.4 m. In conjunction with the Idaho Power Company, we collected genetic samples from 318 live fall Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and 19 carcasses at 40 unique geographic locations that spanned 91 river kilometers. Eighty fish were collected at three sites (High Range [rkm 332.3], Dug Bar [rkm 315.4], and Three Creek [rkm 384.0]), which accounted for 23% of all collected fish in 2022. Most (333 fish) post-spawned salmon were collected from early to mid-November just after the peak of spawning. A summary of 2021 PBT results produced by the Idaho Power Company can be found in Appendix A.2. Beach seining and PIT tagging of subyearling fall Chinook salmon was conducted in Snake and Salmon rivers to obtain information on population metrics and growth as well as to provide data for ongoing life-cycle modeling. In the Snake River, we collected 7,496 subyearlings, tagged 4,139, and recaptured 502 (12.1%). Using 8-mm tags in 45–49-mm fish allowed us to represent an additional 25% of the juvenile population through PIT tagging beyond just using standard 9- and 12-mm tags. In the Salmon River, we captured 206 natural subyearlings with the majority (52%) of fish being captured at two sites: rkm 20 and 26. We tagged 145 subyearlings and recaptured 9 fish. Many of the subyearlings we tagged in the Snake River were detected passing Lower Granite Dam, but only 4 fish tagged in the Salmon River were detected. In total we detected 484 (11.3%) tagged fish at Lower Granite Dam, and detection rates varied by tag size and passage route. More subyearlings were detected passing via the removable spill weir (RSW) earlier in the season while more fish were detected passing through the juvenile fish bypass system (JBS) earlier in the season while more fish were detected passing via the removable spill weir (RSW) later in the season. In general, fish tagged with 12-mm PIT tags had higher detection rates than fish tagged with smaller tags. Survival to Lower Granite Dam was low and ranged from 0.22 to 0.36. Season-wide, growth of subyearlings was higher in the lower reach than in the upper reach of the Snake River.

Idaho, Oregon, Washington↗

USGS1994

Hydrological controls on dissolved organic carbon during snowmelt in the Snake River near Montezuma, Colorado

A quantitative understanding of the factors controlling the variation of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in headwater streams is of scientific concern for at least two reasons. First, quantifying the overall carbon budgets of lotic systems is needed for a fundamental understanding of these systems. Second, DOC interacts strongly with other dissolved substances (heavy metals in particular) and plays an important role in the transport of contaminants. In the Snake River near Montezuma, Colorado, measurements of DOC from 1980 to 1986 show rapid decreases in concentration from a peak very early in the snowmelt period. Peak DOC concentrations occur approximately one month prior to peak discharge in the stream. The decline in DOC with time is approximately exponential, suggesting that a simple flushing mechanism can explain the response. We examined hydrological mechanisms to explain the observed variability of DOC in the Snake River by simulating the hydrological response of the catchment using TOPMODEL and routing the predicted flows through a simple model that accounted for temporal changes in DOC. Conceptually the DOC model represents a terrestrial (soil) reservoir in which DOC builds up during low flow periods and is flushed out by infiltrating meltwaters. The model reproduces the main features of the observed variation in DOC in the Snake River and thus lays the foundation for quantitatively linking hydrological processes with carbon cycling through upland catchments. Model results imply that a significant fraction of the soils in the Snake River catchment contribute DOC to the stream during peak discharge. Our work represents one of the first attempts to quantitatively describe the hydrological controls on DOC dynamics in a headwater stream. These controls are studied through the model by imposing mass balance constraints on both the flux of water through the various DOC source areas and the amount of DOC that can accumulate in these areas.

Colorado↗

USGS1983

The granite problem as exposed in the southern Snake Range, Nevada

A geochemically and mineralogically diverse group of granitoids is present within an area of 900 km2 in the southern Snake Range of eastern Nevada. The granitoids exposed range in age from Jurassic through Cretaceous to Oligocene and include two calcic intrusions, two different types of two-mica granites, and aplites. The younger intrusions appear to have been emplaced at progressively more shallow depths. All of these granitoid types are represented elsewhere in the eastern Great Basin, but the southern Snake Range is distinguished by the grouping of all these types within a relatively small area. The Jurassic calcic pluton of the Snake Creek-Williams Canyon area displays large and systematic chemical and mineralogical zonation over a horizontal distance of five km. Although major element variations in the pluton compare closely with Daly's average andesite-dacite-rhyolite over an SiO2 range of 63 to 76 percent, trace element (Rb, Sr, Ba) variations show that the zonation is the result of in situ fractional crystallization, with the formation of relatively mafic cumulates on at least one wall of the magma chamber. Models of trace element and isotopic data indicate that relatively little assimilation took place at the level of crystallization. Nonetheless, an initial 87Sr/86Sr value of 0.7071 and ??18O values of 10.2 to 12.2 permil suggest a lower crustal magma that was contaminated by upper crustal clastic sedimentary rocks before crystallization. The involvement of mantle-derived magmas in its genesis is difficult to rule out. Two other Jurassic plutons show isotopic and chemical similarities to the Snake Creek-Williams Canyon pluton. Cretaceous granites from eastern Nevada that contain phenocrystic muscovite are strongly peraluminous, and have high initial Sr-isotope ratios and other features characteristic of S-type granitoids. They were probably derived from Proterozoic metasediments and granite gneisses that comprise the middle crust of this region. Another group of granitoids (including the Tertiary aplites) show chemical, mineralogic, and isotopic characteristics intermediate between the first two groups and may have been derived by contamination of magmas from the lower crust by the midcrustal metasediments. ?? 1983 Springer-Verlag.

Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology↗