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USGS2023

Sediment sources and connectivity linked to hydrologic pathways and geomorphic processes: A conceptual model to specify sediment sources and pathways through space and time

Sediment connectivity is a framework for transfer and storage of sediment among different geomorphic compartments across upland and channel network of the catchment sediment cascade. Sediment connectivity and dysconnectivity (i.e., source delivery and storage processes) are linked to the water cycle and hydrologic systems with the associated multiscale interactions with climate, soil, topography, ecology, and landuse/landcover under natural variability and human intervention. We review the sediment connectivity concept and frameworks developed in the last few decades to examine and quantify water and sediment transfer in catchment systems. Past conceptual models of connectivity have attempted to integrate multiple processes into sediment domain, including geomorphic, hydrologic, and ecological processes (i.e., “holistic approach to connectivity”). In particular, multiple studies highlight the importance of sediment and water interaction in defining landscape connectivity. There are also efforts to quantify the topographic controls on sediment connectivity, in the advent of increasingly high-resolution digital terrain models. More recent modeling efforts have integrated structural and functional connectivity through coupling topographic information with hydrologic simulation models. Though this recent modeling development is encouraging, a comprehensive sediment connectivity framework that integrates geomorphic and hydrologic processes across spatiotemporal scales is yet to be conceived. Such an effort will require understanding the governing hydrologic and geomorphic processes that control sediment source, storage, and transport. A conceptual model is proposed to describe dominant hydrologic-sediment connectivity regimes through spatial-temporal feedbacks between hydrologic processes (rainfall, flow routing, and water residence time) and geomorphic drivers (upland soil erosion and deposition, and geomorphic channel erosion and deposition response). Recent advancements in landscape monitoring techniques using geochemical tracers, remote-sensing, increasing availability of hydrologic monitoring data, and the integration of various analytic methods (e.g., isotopic hydrograph separation, stormflow concentration-discharge, hysteretic behavior analysis) have the potential to broaden the spatial and temporal scales of geomorphic observations and understanding of landscape sediment connectivity. Using the conceptual model as a “thinking” space, we examine sediment and hydrologic interactions in real world examples of watershed studies using multiple lines of evidence and modeling techniques.

Conference Paper↗
USGS2025

Fluvial sediment dynamics in the Shoshone River and tributaries around Willwood Dam, Park County, Wyoming

Sedimentation affects many of the aging reservoirs in the United States. Dams and water diversions from rivers have been central elements of infrastructure supporting agricultural irrigation in the arid and semiarid regions of the Western United States for more than a century. The Willwood Irrigation District diversion dam (hereafter referred to as “Willwood Dam”) in Park County, Wyoming, is approximately 12 miles northeast of Cody, Wyo.; has a structural height of 70 feet; and impounds the Shoshone River for diversion into the Willwood Canal. Willwood Dam is part of a larger irrigation scheme supported by water storage in the much larger Buffalo Bill Dam, which is approximately 20 miles upstream. In October 2016, renovation construction activities at Willwood Dam and the Willwood Canal caused an unplanned evacuation of nearly 96,000 cubic yards of fine sediment. The fine sediment release in 2016 raised concerns that ongoing sediment management at Willwood Dam could impose limits on the long-term health of the aquatic ecosystem and fish populations. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality and Willwood Work Groups 2 and 3, initiated an investigation of the dynamics of sediment transport in the Shoshone River and selected tributaries between Buffalo Bill Dam and Willwood Dam. The goal of the study was to quantify sediment transport into and out of Willwood Dam on an annual, seasonal, and event basis to better understand the relative quantities of sediment coming from natural sources and human activities on the landscape. The study ran from March 2019 through October 2021 and used observations of streamflow, turbidity, and acoustic backscatter collected at streamgages upstream and downstream from Willwood Dam to quantify suspended-sediment loads into and out of the dam during irrigation and fallow seasons, precipitation-runoff events, and deliberate sediment releases. Each tributary’s relative contribution to the sediment load upstream from Willwood Dam was examined using discrete measurements of suspended-sediment concentration and bedload during irrigation and fallow seasons, precipitation events, and stable conditions. Analysis of daily precipitation and temperature data indicated that conditions in the study area during the 2019 agricultural year were wetter and colder than period of record normal, and drier and near normal temperatures for the 2020 and 2021 agricultural years. Not all sediment load records between 2019 and 2021 are complete because of rejected observations (outliers), instrument failures or fouling, and instrument removal for calibrations. Statistical modeling of suspended-sediment concentration using paired values of turbidity and acoustic backscatter produced four models that, after refinement, had coefficients of determination indicating that more than 84 percent of the variance was explained by either turbidity or acoustic backscatter. A system of rules was developed to select the model predictions based on the seasonal operations of Willwood Dam, assumptions about the grain sizes mobilized during these operations, and assumed accuracy of the models at the downstream streamgage (Shoshone River below Willwood Dam, near Ralston, Wyo. [streamgage 06284010]) under different operational conditions. The sediment budget between upstream and downstream estimates of loads was interpreted using the mean predicted values bound by their respective model prediction intervals. When mean predicted loads of one streamgage were contained in the prediction intervals of the other streamgage, and vice-versa, difference in the sediment budget were interpreted as “indeterminate.” Modeled sediment load balances demonstrated the depositional and erosional behaviors expected from the conceptual model of dam operations whereby sediment tends to accumulate during irrigation seasons when the dam is spilling over the top, and sediment tends to evacuate during the fallow seasons when it is flowing through the sluice gates at the base of the dam. The sediment load calculations using the rules-based model criteria indicated that between 14,200 and 380,000 tons of suspended sediment moved through the Shoshone River around Willwood Dam during the irrigation seasons of 2019, 2020, and 2021; 380,000 tons of suspended sediment were transported during the cool, wet year of 2019, and 14,200 tons of suspended sediment were transported in 2020, which was relatively dry. During fallow seasons 2019, 2020, and 2021, which had fewer complete records, between 1,140 and 106,000 tons of suspended sediment was estimated to have moved through the river. For all seasons except fallow season 2022, the models estimated that more sediment was released from the dam than entered the dam, but the modeled mean loads at each streamgage were nearly always within the prediction intervals of each other, making the sediment balance indeterminant. Examination of suspended-sediment loads during irrigation seasons indicated that between 65 and 85 percent of fine sediment was transported during annual high flows and storm events, with the remainder transported during steady, lower streamflows. Examination of suspended loads during fallow seasons indicated that deliberate sediment releases through Willwood Dam accounted for between 39 and 67 percent of the total sediment moved during the fallow seasons. Deliberate sediment releases from Willwood Dam had estimated net exports of between 1,360 and 22,400 tons. Between August 2017 and July 2023, suspended-sediment concentration and bedload sediment samples were collected from 9 tributaries to the Shoshone River during 137 sampling events, including stable and precipitation-runoff conditions. During irrigation season precipitation events, the mean total sediment yields ranged from 0.33 to 9.51 tons per day per square mile; during fallow season precipitation events, the mean total yields ranged from 0.04 to 0.95 ton per day per square mile. The mean total sediment yield per unit area across all samples at each tributary site ranged from 0.26 to 3.08 tons per day per square mile. Bedload was a minor fraction of the total load, constituting a mean of 4 percent across all samples; 3 and 6 percent for events and nonevents, respectively, during irrigation season; and 3 and 1 percent for events and nonevents, respectively, during the fallow season. With the exception of one tributary, Dry Creek, these mean yield values were within the range of watershed-scale background sediment yield values estimated from reservoir surveys and previous suspended-sediment studies. Imagery from irrigation seasons 2012, 2015, 2017, 2019, and 2022 was used to determine the planimetric backwater extent of the pool area in the Shoshone River behind Willwood Dam to identify any changes in sediment storage. Active river channel widths in the Shoshone River upstream from Willwood Dam were all similar between years except 2015, which was determined to be statistically different from all other years. Bathymetric data taken in the pool behind Willwood Dam during three different surveys between November 2017 and April 2022 indicated no statistically significant differences in bed elevations between the years. Results from the planimetric and bathymetric survey data provide multiple lines of evidence indicating that sediment did not accumulate behind the dam within the error of the methods used. Examination of how precipitation affects sediment transport in the Shoshone River upstream from Willwood Dam indicated that accumulated rainfall from the natural runoff events captured during the study period varied from a trace to as much as 4.26 inches, with associated predicted suspended-sediment loads varying from 112 to 232,000 tons of suspended sediment. The behavior of the sediment loads relative to accumulated precipitation did not appear to change depending on irrigation or fallow season. A model of suspended-sediment concentrations relative to the 2-day accumulated precipitation indicated that suspended-sediment concentrations in the Shoshone River upstream from Willwood Dam increased exponentially for accumulations of 0.3 inch or more; such storms accounted for 10 percent or less of precipitation events observed during the 1981 to 2018 period of record. The gaps in records, precision of the instrumentation, and large variation in grain sizes in suspended-sediment mixtures downstream from the dam made closing the sediment budgets for most seasons unattainable. The biggest recent change in sediment storage measured using the planimetric area of deposits behind Willwood Dam took place between 2015 and 2017. The main event between these two measurements was the installation of new Willwood Canal gates in October 2016, which resulted in the large unplanned sediment release. Because the sediment budgets were nearly always indeterminate and the planimetric and bathymetric data indicated little change in the bed and bank material, it is likely that the change in sediment storage behind the dam during the study period was small relative to the precision of the statistical models and other uncertainties. This body of evidence suggests that, averaged during the 3-year study period, no major changes in storage took place, and that the current operations may be keeping storage at near-equilibrium. This condition could have been initiated because the middle sluice gate has now been operational since 2014, and the sediment release in October 2016 evacuated a large amount of legacy sediment from storage. Although the uncertainties are large, sluicing events allow for controlled releases of sediment that contributed to the near equilibrium conditions observed over an annual basis during this study.

Wyoming↗
USGS2011

Adaptive management for a turbulent future

The challenges that face humanity today differ from the past because as the scale of human influence has increased, our biggest challenges have become global in nature, and formerly local problems that could be addressed by shifting populations or switching resources, now aggregate (i.e., "scale up") limiting potential management options. Adaptive management is an approach to natural resource management that emphasizes learning through management based on the philosophy that knowledge is incomplete and much of what we think we know is actually wrong. Adaptive management has explicit structure, including careful elucidation of goals, identification of alternative management objectives and hypotheses of causation, and procedures for the collection of data followed by evaluation and reiteration. It is evident that adaptive management has matured, but it has also reached a crossroads. Practitioners and scientists have developed adaptive management and structured decision making techniques, and mathematicians have developed methods to reduce the uncertainties encountered in resource management, yet there continues to be misapplication of the method and misunderstanding of its purpose. Ironically, the confusion over the term "adaptive management" may stem from the flexibility inherent in the approach, which has resulted in multiple interpretations of "adaptive management" that fall along a continuum of complexity and a priori design. Adaptive management is not a panacea for the navigation of 'wicked problems' as it does not produce easy answers, and is only appropriate in a subset of natural resource management problems where both uncertainty and controllability are high. Nonetheless, the conceptual underpinnings of adaptive management are simple; there will always be inherent uncertainty and unpredictability in the dynamics and behavior of complex social-ecological systems, but management decisions must still be made, and whenever possible, we should incorporate learning into management. ?? 2010 .

Journal of Environmental Management↗
USGS2002

Reducing predation by common ravens on desert tortoises in the Mojave and Colorado Deserts

Conflicts between humans and natural populations often result from habitat fragmentation and degradation that accompanies human activities. Common raven populations in the Mojave Desert have benefited by human-provided resources; they've expanded precipitously in recent years. Because ravens prey on juveniles of the threatened desert tortoise, they have become the focus of management concerns to help recover dwindling tortoise populations. I have outlined herein a series of management recommendations designed to reduce raven predation on desert tortoises thereby facilitating juvenile tortoise recruitment into the population of reproductive adults. The recommendations are based on the best available scientific information and are intended to provide a basis for a long-term reduction in raven impacts. The recommendations fall into four basic categories. (1) Modify anthropogenic sources of food, water, and nesting substrates to reduce their use by ravens. This includes modifying landfill operations, septage containment practices, livestock management, and other commercial and private practices that help facilitate raven survival and dispersal by providing food and water. Most of these measures are long-term actions deigned to reduce the carrying capacity of the desert for ravens. This action is critical and must be done over very large areas. (2)Lethal removal of ravens by shooting or euthanizing following live trapping. Specific ravens known to prey on tortoises would be targeted as well as all ravens found foraging within specific high-priority desert tortoise management zones (e.g., Desert Tortoise Natural Areas, DTNA). These actions would primarily be deployed on a short-term emergency basis to give specific tortoise populations a necessary boost until other measures become fully implemented and achieve their goals. (3) Conduct research on raven ecology, raven behavior, and methods to reduce raven predation on tortoises. Results of these studies would be used to design future phases of the raven management program. (4) All actions should be approached within an adaptive management framework. As such monitor, actions should be designed as experiments so that monitoring of actions will yield reliable and scientifically sound results. Coordinating and oversight teams should be convened to facilitate cooperation and coordination among agencies and to ensure that the actions are being implemented effectively. Recommendations made herein were developed to help recover tortoise populations by reducing raven predation on juvenile tortoises. If the recommendations made are implemented in concert with actions reducing other causes of mortality, ill health, and lowered reproductive output, they should aid in the long-term recovery of desert tortoise populations. Many important aspects of raven population dynamics, raven predation on tortoises, and how to manage raven populations and behavior are as yet unknown. Because of this, any raven management program must be implemented within an adaptive management framework. Doing so would allow for sufficient flexibility to modify the program as new information is gained.

Report↗
USGS2023

Alternative lifestyles: A plague persistence hypothesis

Several explanations have been posited for how the plague bacterium ( Yersinia pestis ) reemerges during sylvatic cycles within the same foci over many years, and often without direct evidence of host die-offs. One prevalent view is that transmission-optimized Y. pestis bacteria, exhibiting epizootic/enzootic behavior, almost continually replicate and survive through repeated, linked, host-centered propagation events. These bacteria, we will refer to as “ r-pestis ” type ecotype(s), represent a limited number of phenotypic lineages exhibiting optimal transmissibility and high rates of reproduction. These attributes, it is thought, assure their durability through time. For continuous r-pestis type expansions to be successful, adequate numbers of fleas and hosts must become infected to produce massive numbers of bacteria. In the process, host and flea numbers decline as they succumb to plague. Here we hypothesize that r-pestis population expansions seed the environment and confront a unique, highly competitive local milieu, where natural selection favors new ecotypes that incorporate a range of emergent adaptive survival strategies. These newly adapted survivors we recognize as a range of “ K - pestis ” ecotypes with greater durability and lower reproduction rates. These emergent K - pestis forms may arise in succession or coexist for varying periods of time with r-pestis ecotypes, and with other K - pestis ecotypes. Among K-pestis ecotypes, we hypothesize that through adaptive radiations, some persist within flea life stages, soil, organic waste, amoebae, plants, carcasses, hosts, or within niches yet to be characterized. In some settings, after a long quiet period, when favorable, K-pestis bacteria may trigger a singular event where an r-pestis transmission stream emerges precipitating another enzootic/epizootic progression. If this hypothesis withstands rigorous testing, then Y. pestis might represent an even more formidable, enduring, and adaptable foe, where unforeseen local events could trigger new epidemic and epizootic/enzootic events threatening humans and populations of other mammals, including those of conservation concern.

Ecosphere↗
USGS2018

Assessing the impact of open-ocean and back-barrier shoreline change on Dauphin Island, Alabama, at multiple time scales over the last 75 years

Dauphin Island and Little Dauphin Island, collectively, make up a geomorphically complex barrier island system located along Alabama’s southern coast, separating Mississippi Sound from the Gulf of Mexico and Mobile Bay. The barrier island system provides numerous economical (tourism, fisheries) and natural (habitat for migratory birds, natural protection of inland and coastal areas from storms) benefits to the State of Alabama. The complex geomorphology of Dauphin Island is partly a response to temporal variations in the direction and magnitude of sediment transport along and across the barrier island system. In this report, we present open-ocean and back-barrier shoreline change rates at different time scales to evaluate the island’s dominant behavior (expansion or widening and contraction or narrowing) over the last 75 years. The spatial and temporal variability of barrier island width provides baseline and historical context for potential restoration alternatives being considered as part of the Alabama Barrier Island Restoration Feasibility Study. Open-ocean shorelines have eroded continuously over the last 75 years, with rates ranging from 1.5 to 4 meters per year. Back-barrier shorelines are less uniform than open-ocean shorelines, but are, on average, also eroding over the same period. Periods of back-barrier progradation are observed but generally occur during discrete, large altering events like hurricanes that overwash or breach narrow sections of the barrier island. Because both shorelines are eroding, the width of the island has decreased during the last 75 years. The section to the west of a breach that opened during Hurricanes Ivan and Katrina (known as Katrina Cut) exhibits a steady, rapid decrease in width while the section to the east of the breach has gone through periods of expansion and contraction and has only recently begun slowly narrowing. Although the recent trends indicate declining widths, the back-barrier progradation rates in this area were the highest compared to other time periods, which abated extreme narrowing caused by increased open-ocean shoreline erosion. These data and the interpreted results indicate that both short-term (annual) and long-term (decadal) cross-barrier sediment exchange is a key component of sustaining barrier island width. Therefore, any mechanisms that influence this exchange, whether from natural processes (overwash, breaching, or inlet dynamics) or human activities (development, post-storm recovery, restoration), should be considered when evaluating the long-term sustainability of barrier island systems.

Alabama↗
USGS2026

Small creatures, big challenge: A review of current knowledge and assessment of research needs to inform water withdrawal management for the Duck River's freshwater mussel fauna

The Duck River is a remarkable national resource, boasting outstanding biodiversity (Ahlstedt et al. 2017). It contains 151 fish species, over 60 mussel species, and 22 snail species, many of which are federally listed (Etnier and Starnes 1993; Johnson et al. 2013; Ahlstedt et al. 2017; Womble and Rosenberger 2025a). The Duck River watershed is at a pivotal time in its management and ecological history due to significant growth in human population and economic activity. The consequent increase in surface water demand presents challenges for sustainable water resource management. The Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation (TDEC) has permitted or proposed to permit eight water utilities to withdraw over 77 million gallons per day (mgd) from the Duck River, representing > 40% increase from previously permitted amounts (USFWS 2025). On November 20, 2024, Tennessee Governor Bill Lee signed Executive Order No 108 to ensure long-term stability of the Duck River watershed through balancing economic growth, water resource management, and environmental conservation. Some primary components of this plan are the creation of a Comprehensive Regional Drought Management Plan, the development of a Habitat Conservation Plan, and the establishment of the Duck River Watershed Planning Partnership (DRWPP). Although the planning partnership is not focused on a sole aspect of the Duck River, but the watershed as a whole, the mussel assemblages of the Duck River have been a particular focus due to their importance in providing ecosystem services, sensitivity to water quality, conservation status, and sensitivity to periodic drought conditions in this system. With multiple state and federal agencies involved in managing the Duck River’s unique water resources, a focused review on how future water management could affect the freshwater mussel communities in the Duck River will contribute to this process. Our objectives of this review are to: 1. Review the effects of changing flow regimes on mussels, with emphasis on the effect of droughts/low flows, highlighting key processes/factors affecting mussels. 2. Highlight critical data gaps that could allow future, evidence-based water management decisions in this system. 3. Propose research topics to address critical data gaps and enable evidence-based water management decisions that consider the needs of freshwater mussels. Freshwater mussels are a critical component of riverine ecosystems, providing ecosystem services including water filtration, nutrient cycling, and habitat provision (Vaughn et al. 2004; Haag 2012) that benefit human communities. Environmental flows, also referred to as ecological or e-flows, refer to the quantity, timing, and quality of water flows necessary to maintain the ecological health of rivers, wetlands, and other aquatic ecosystems (Acreman and Dunbar 2004; Acreman 2016). For freshwater mussels, environmental flows include maintaining a flow regime and associated water quality regimes that are favorable for both juveniles and adults while also seasonally supporting host fish and the survival of settling glochidia (i.e., larval mussels) in suitable environments (Gates et al. 2015). Freshwater mussels are adapted to the natural flow regime of their native streams, including seasonal variability in flows. As sedentary filter feeders, mussels require adequate water flow to provide oxygen and food (Allen and Vaughn 2009); however, they also require periods of low flow to increase access to fish hosts and to ensure juveniles are not displaced (Gates et al 2015). Mussels are sensitive to water quality conditions, including pollutants, sedimentation, and artificial alterations of temperature and pH (Strayer and Malcom 2012). Mussel community characteristics, including presence, abundance, and species richness, generally increase with stream size (e.g., stream order); however, responses to changes in flow conditions are often species-specific, and the magnitude and timing of extreme flow conditions have more predictive power for mussel community response than general changes in flow (Lopez and Vaughn 2021). Complex hydraulic variables, such as relative shear stress and Reynolds number, can be strong predictors of mussel community responses because they combine simple hydraulic variables (e.g., velocity, depth) with stream channel characteristics, such as substrate composition and dynamics. Droughts directly and indirectly affect mussels by influencing their physiology, behavior, reproduction, and ecosystem roles. Mass mussel die-offs during droughts and low water conditions are widely documented (Vaughn et al. 2015; Sousa et al. 2018; Dubose et al. 2019). Droughts can also lead to a shift in mussel community composition, with drought-tolerant species becoming more dominant while more sensitive species experience declines (Galbraith et al, 2010; Lopez et al. 2022; Vaughn and Atkinson 2025). Droughts affect mussels through direct mortality from stranding as well as physiological stress from altered water temperature and quality, reduced habitat and food availability and quality, increased predation and competition, disruption of reproductive cycles, and increased susceptibility to disease and pathogens. Although the effects of droughts, water withdrawals, and low flow conditions on mussels are an increasing area of study, there is a general paucity of data-driven consensus regarding optimal mitigation approaches and strategies (Cushway et al. 2024). Long-term management decisions regarding water withdrawals, particularly during extended or multi-year drought conditions, may consider factors beyond direct mortality such as the sublethal effects of drought and low flow conditions on freshwater mussels for a comprehensive understanding of the effects of prolonged low flows on freshwater mussels and aquatic communities.

Tennessee↗
USGS2022

The effects of earthquake experience on intentions to respond to Earthquake Early Warnings

Warning systems are essential for providing people with information so they can take protective action in response to perils. Systems need to be human-centered, which requires an understanding of the context within which humans operate. Therefore, our research sought to understand the human context for Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) in Aotearoa New Zealand, a location where no comprehensive EEW system existed in 2019 when we did this study. We undertook a survey of people's previous experiences of earthquakes, their perceptions of the usefulness of a hypothetical EEW system, and their intended responses to a potential warning (for example, Drop, Cover, Hold (DCH), staying still, performing safety actions). Results showed little difference in perceived usefulness of an EEW system between those with and without earthquake experience, except for a weak relationship between perceived usefulness and if a respondent's family or friends had previously experienced injury, damage or loss from an earthquake. Previous earthquake experience was, however, associated with various intended responses to a warning. The more direct, or personally relevant a person's experiences were, the more likely they were to intend to take a useful action on receipt of an EEW. Again, the type of experience which showed the largest difference was having had a family member or friend experience injury, damage or loss. Experience of participation in training, exercises or drills did not seem to prompt the correct intended actions for earthquake warnings; however, given the hypothetical nature of the study, it is possible people did not associate their participation in drills, for example, with a potential action that could be taken on receipt of an EEW. Our analysis of regional differences highlighted that intentions to mentally prepare on receipt of a warning were significantly higher for Canterbury region participants, most likely related to strong shaking and subsequent impacts experienced during the 2010–11 Canterbury Earthquake Sequence. Our research reinforces that previous experience can influence earthquake-related perceptions and behaviors, but in different ways depending on the context. Public communication and interventions for EEW could take into consideration different levels and types of experiences of the audience for greater success in response.

Frontiers in Communications↗
USGS1981

Responses of Raptorial Birds to Low Level Military Jets and Sonic Booms: Results of the 1980-1981 Joint U.S. Air Force-U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Study

Summary: For this study, we gathered several kinds of data to determine the likely effects of low level jets and sonic booms on nesting Peregrine Falcons and other raptors. We directly observed responses to worst case stimulus loads: responses to extremely frequent and extremely nearby jet aircraft were often minimal, seldom significant and never associated with reproductive failure. Likewise, responses to real and simulated sonic booms were often minimal and never productivity limiting. In addition to directly observing behavioral responses, in 1981 we invited jet passes at four Prairie Falcon eyries during courtship and incubation when the adults were most likely to abandon, on an ad libitum basis. All four eyries fledged young. Nesting success and site reoccupancy rates were high for all eyries. In tests of two relatively naive captive Peregrine Falcons, we failed to detect significantly negative responses. Typically the birds either quickly resumed feeding or other activities within a few seconds following a pass or boom. The female falcon repeatedly made hunting forays as jets swept overhead. From heart rate (HR) data taken via a telemetering egg during incubation at a wild Prairie Falcon eyrie, we determined that stimulus induced HR alterations were comparable to rate changes of the birds settling to incubate following flight. No significant long term responses were identified. The falcons successfully fledged two young even with the more disruptive activities associated with entering the eyrie three times to position and recover the telemetering eggs. Significantly, birds ofprey of several genera commonly nest in the supersonic military operations areas in southern Arizona. In addition, raptor eyries are frequently found at locations where low level jet traffic naturally concentrates. For example, Prairie Falcon Site 11 is directly on the approach path to strafing and bombing targets. Prairie Falcon Site 1 is in a narrow canyon through which A-10 aircraft naturally funnel while flying low altitude tactical navigation (LATN) missions. Both sites successfully fledged young both years of the study. In summary, while the birds observed for this study were often noticeably alarmed by the subject stimuli, the negative responses were brief and never productivity limiting. In general, the birds were incredibly tolerant of stimulus loads which would likely be unacceptable to humans. It is significant that the endangered species recovery plan for the Peregrine Falcon in the southwest (USFWS 1977) fails to mention military jet operations as a likely factor in the falcon's decrease or that military jet operations should be taken into account in the species recovery.

Book↗
USGS2017

Quantifying the demographic cost of human-related mortality to a raptor population

Raptors are exposed to a wide variety of human-related mortality agents, and yet population-level effects are rarely quantified. Doing so requires modeling vital rates in the context of species life-history, behavior, and population dynamics theory. In this paper, we explore the details of such an analysis by focusing on the demography of a resident, tree-nesting population of golden eagles ( Aquila chrysaetos ) in the vicinity of an extensive (142 km 2 ) windfarm in California. During 1994–2000, we tracked the fates of >250 radio-marked individuals of four life-stages and conducted five annual surveys of territory occupancy and reproduction. Collisions with wind turbines accounted for 41% of 88 uncensored fatalities, most of which were subadults and nonbreeding adults (floaters). A consistent overall male preponderance in the population meant that females were the limiting sex in this territorial, monogamous species. Estimates of potential population growth rate and associated variance indicated a stable breeding population, but one for which any further decrease in vital rates would require immigrant floaters to fill territory vacancies. Occupancy surveys 5 and 13 years later (2005 and 2013) showed that the nesting population remained intact, and no upward trend was apparent in the proportion of subadult eagles as pair members, a condition that would have suggested a deficit of adult replacements. However, the number of golden eagle pairs required to support windfarm mortality was large. We estimated that the entire annual reproductive output of 216–255 breeding pairs would have been necessary to support published estimates of 55–65 turbine blade-strike fatalities per year. Although the vital rates forming the basis for these calculations may have changed since the data were collected, our approach should be useful for gaining a clearer understanding of how anthropogenic mortality affects the health of raptor populations, particularly those species with delayed maturity and naturally low reproductive rates.

PLoS ONE↗
USGS2009

Fire rehabilitation effectiveness: a chronosequence approach for the Great Basin

Federal land management agencies have invested heavily in seeding vegetation for emergency stabilization and rehabilitation (ES&R) of non-forested lands. ES&R projects are implemented to reduce post-fire dominance of non-native annual grasses, minimize probability of recurrent fire, quickly recover lost habitat for sensitive species, and ultimately result in plant communities with desirable characteristics including resistance to invasive species and resilience or ability to recover following disturbance. Land managers lack scientific evidence to verify whether seeding non-forested lands achieves their desired long-term ES&R objectives. The overall objective of our investigation is to determine if ES&R projects increase perennial plant cover, improve community composition, decrease invasive annual plant cover and result in a more desirable fuel structure relative to no treatment following fires while potentially providing habitat for Greater Sage-Grouse, a species of management concern. In addition, we provide the locations and baseline vegetation data for further studies relating to ES&R project impacts. We examined effects of seeding treatments (drill and broadcast) vs. no seeding on biotic and abiotic (bare ground and litter) variables for the dominant climate regimes and ecological types within the Great Basin. We attempted to determine seeding effectiveness to provide desired plant species cover while restricting non-native annual grass cover relative to post-treatment precipitation, post-treatment grazing level and time-since-seeding. Seedings were randomly sampled from all known post-fire seedings that occurred in the four-state area of Idaho, Nevada, Oregon and Utah. Sampling locations were stratified by major land resource area, precipitation, and loam-dominated soils to ensure an adequate spread of locations to provide inference of our findings to similar lands throughout the Great Basin. Nearly 100 sites were located that contained an ES&R project. Of these sites, 61 were seeded by using a drill, 27 were broadcast aerially, and 12 had a combination of both. We randomly sampled three burned and seeded, burned and unseeded, and unburned and unseeded locations in the vicinity of the fire, each within the same ecological site. We measured foliar cover of all plant functional groups (perennial or annual, shrub, grass, forb, native or introduced), biological soil crusts, and abiotic (bare soil and litter) variables using the line-point intercept protocol. Fuel loads and horizontal fuel continuity were measured. We applied linear mixed models to response variables (cover and density of plant groups) relative to the dependent variables (seeding treatments and precipitation/temperature relationships. Post-fire strengths with native perennial grasses or shrubs in mixes did not increase density or cover of these groups significantly relative to unseeded, burned areas. Seeded non-native perennial grasses and the shrub Bassia prostrata were effective in providing more cover in aerial and drill seedings. Seeded non-native perennial grass cover increased with increased annual precipitation regardless of seeding type. Seeding native shrubs, particularly Artemisia tridentata, did not significantly increase shrub cover in burned areas. Cover of undesirable non-native annual grasses was lower in drill seedings relative to unseeded areas but only at higher elevations. Seeding effectiveness after wildfire is unpredictable in drier, low elevation environments, and our findings indicate management objectives are more likely met when focusing efforts on higher elevation or higher precipitation locations where establishment of perennial grasses is more likely. On sites where potential for invasion and dominance of non-native annuals is high, such as lower and drier sites, intensive methods of restoration that include invasive plant control before seeding may be required. Where establishment of native perennial plants is the goal, managers might consider using native-only seed mixtures, because we found that the non-native perennials typically used in Great Basin restoration efforts are selected for their competitive nature and may reduce establishment of less competitive native species. Although we attempted to include information on livestock grazing history after seedings, we were unable to extract sufficient data from files to address this topic that may play an additional role in understanding native plant abundance post-fire seeding. Evaluation of drill and aerial seeding effects on fuel characteristics focused on two metrics that are standard inputs for fire behavior models, fuel load and fuel continuity. Fuel loads were evaluated separately for total fuel load biomass, and the individual components that sum to total biomass, namely herbaceous, shrub, shrub:herbaceous ratio, litter, 10-hour, and 100-hour fuel biomasses. Fuel continuity was evaluated using the following cover categories, total, annual grass, annual forb, perennial forb perennial grass, shrub, litter, vegetative interspace, and perennial interspace. Drill seeding did not affect fuel loads, except to reduce 10-hour fuels, probably due to mechanical destruction of dead and down fuels by the drill seeding equipment. Drill seeding did affect fuel continuity, specifically decreasing total plant cover by increasing perennial grass cover which suppressed annual grass and litter production resulting in a net decrease in continuity, but only at the elevations above approximately 1500m. Aerial seeding had no effect on any fuel load or fuel continuity category. For the Greater Sage-Grouse habitat study, we developed multi-scale empirical models of sage-grouse occupancy in 211 randomly located plots within a 40 million ha portion of the species’ range. We then used these models to predict sage-grouse habitat quality at 101 ES&R seeding projects. We compared conditions at restoration sites to published habitat guidelines. Sage-grouse occupancy was positively related to plot- and landscape-level dwarf sagebrush (Artemisia arbuscula, A. nova, A. tripartita) and big sagebrush steppe, and negatively associated with non-native grass and human development. The predicted probability of sage-grouse occupancy at treated plots was low on average (0.07–0.09) and was not significantly different from burned areas that had not been treated. Restoration was more often successful at higher elevation sites with low annual temperatures, high spring precipitation, and high plant diversity. No plots seeded after fire (n=313) met all overstory guidelines for breeding habitats, but approximately 50% met understory guidelines, particularly for perennial grasses. This trend was similar for summer habitat. Ninety-eight percent of treated plots did not meet winter habitat guidelines. Restoration actions in burned areas did not increase the probability of meeting most guideline criteria. The probability of meeting guidelines was influenced by a latitudinal gradient, local climate, and topography. Post-fire seeding treatments in Great Basin sagebrush shrublands generally have not created high quality habitat for sage-grouse. Understory conditions are more likely to be adequate than those of overstory, but in unfavorable climates, establishing forbs and reducing cheatgrass dominance is unlikely. Reestablishing sagebrush cover will require more than 20 years using the restoration methods of the past two decades. Given current fire frequencies and restoration capabilities, protection of landscapes containing a mix of dwarf sagebrush and big sagebrush steppe, minimal human development, and low non-native plant cover may provide the best opportunity for conservation of sage-grouse habitats. Our database of ES&R locations has used the Land Treatment Digital Library to archive data and location information regarding our study (see Pilliod and Welty 2013). This has contributed to two additional studies. One examined the potential spread of Bassia prostrata (aka Kochia prostrata; forage kochia) from ES&R project locations (Gray and Muir 2013). The second used remote sensing to determine the phenology of vegetation green-up on post-fire seeded sites (Sankey et al. 2013).

California;Idaho;Oregon;Utah↗
USGS2021

Interrupted incubation: How dabbling ducks respond when flushed from the nest

Nesting birds must provide a thermal environment sufficient for egg development while also meeting self‐maintenance needs. Many birds, particularly those with uniparental incubation, achieve this balance through periodic incubation recesses, during which foraging and other self‐maintenance activities can occur. However, incubating birds may experience disturbances such as predator or human activity which interrupt natural incubation patterns by compelling them to leave the nest. We characterized incubating mallard Anas platyrhynchos and gadwall Mareca strepera hens’ responses when flushed by predators and investigators in Suisun Marsh, California, USA. Diurnal incubation recesses initiated by investigators approaching nests were 63% longer than natural diurnal incubation recesses initiated by the hen (geometric mean: 226.77 min versus 142.04 min). Nocturnal incubation recesses, many of which were likely the result of predators flushing hens, were of similar duration regardless of whether the nest was partially depredated during the event (115.33 [101.01;131.68] minutes) or not (119.62 [111.96;127.82] minutes), yet were 16% shorter than natural diurnal incubation recesses. Hens moved further from the nest during natural diurnal recesses or investigator‐initiated recesses than during nocturnal recesses, and the proportion of hen locations recorded in wetland versus upland habitat during recesses varied with recess type (model‐predicted means: natural diurnal recess 0.77; investigator‐initiated recess 0.82; nocturnal recess 0.31). Hens were more likely to take a natural recess following an investigator‐initiated recess earlier that same day than following a natural recess earlier that same day, and natural recesses that followed an investigator‐initiated recess were longer than natural recesses that followed an earlier natural recess, suggesting that hens may not fulfill all of their physiological needs during investigator‐initiated recesses. We found no evidence that the duration of investigator‐initiated recesses was influenced by repeated visits to the nest, whether by predators or by investigators, and trapping and handling the hen did not affect investigator‐initiated recess duration unless the hen was also fitted with a backpack‐harness style GPS–GSM transmitter at the time of capture. Hens that were captured and fitted with GPS–GSM transmitters took recesses that were 26% longer than recesses during which a hen was captured but a GPS–GSM transmitter was not attached. Incubation interruptions had measurable but limited and specific effects on hen behavior.

Ecology and Evolution↗
USGS2013

Amphibians and reptiles of Guyana, South America: illustrated keys, annotated species accounts, and a biogeographic synopsis

Guyana has a very distinctive herpetofauna. In this first ever detailed modern accounting, based on voucher specimens, we document the presence of 324 species of amphibians and reptiles in the country; 148 amphibians, 176 reptiles. Of these, we present species accounts for 317 species and color photographs of about 62% (Plates 1–40). At the rate that new species are being described and distributional records are being found for the first time, we suspect that at least 350 species will be documented in a few decades. The diverse herpetofauna includes 137 species of frogs and toads, 11 caecilians, 4 crocodylians, 4 amphisbaenians, 56 lizards, 97 snakes, and 15 turtles. Endemic species, which occur nowhere else in the world, comprise 15% of the herpetofauna. Most of the endemics are amphibians, comprising 27% of the amphibian fauna. Type localities (where the type specimens or scientific name-bearers of species were found) are located within Guyana for 24% of the herpetofauna, or 36% of the amphibians. This diverse fauna results from the geographic position of Guyana on the Guiana Shield and the isolated highlands or tepuis of the eastern part of the Pantepui Region, which are surrounded by lowland rainforest and savannas. Consequently, there is a mixture of local endemic species and widespread species characteristic of Amazonia and the Guianan Region. Although the size of this volume may mislead some people into thinking that a lot is known about the fauna of Guyana, the work has just begun. Many of the species are known from fewer than five individuals in scientific collections; for many the life history, distribution, ecology, and behavior remain poorly known; few resources in the country are devoted to developing such knowledge; and as far as we are aware, no other group of animals in the fauna of Guyana has been summarized in a volume such as this to document the biological resources. We briefly discuss aspects of biogeography, as reflected in samples collected at seven lowland sites (in rainforest, savanna, and mixed habitats below 500 m elevation) and three isolated highland sites (in montane forest and evergreen high-tepui forest above 1400 m elevation). Comparisons of these sites are preliminary because sampling of the local faunas remains incomplete. Nevertheless, it is certain that areas of about 2.5 km2 of lowland rainforest can support more than 130 species of amphibians and reptiles (perhaps actually more than 150), while many fewer species (fewer than 30 documented so far) occur in a comparable area of isolated highlands, where low temperatures, frequent cloudiness, and poor soils are relatively unfavorable for amphibians and reptiles. Furthermore, insufficient study has been done in upland sites of intermediate elevations, where lowland and highland faunas overlap significantly, although considerable work is being accomplished in Kaieteur National Park by other investigators. Comparisons of the faunas of the lowland and isolated highland sites showed that very few species occur in common in both the lowlands and isolated highlands; that those few are widespread lowland species that tolerate highland environments; that many endemic species (mostly amphibians) occur in the isolated highlands of the Pakaraima Mountains; and that each of the isolated highlands, lowland savannas, and lowland rainforests at these 10 sites have distinctive faunal elements. No two sites were identical in species composition. Much more work is needed to compare a variety of sites, and especially to incorporate upland sites of intermediate elevations in such comparisons. Five species of sea turtles utilize the limited areas of Atlantic coastal beaches to the northwest of Georgetown. All of these are listed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature as being of global concern for long-term survival, mostly owing to human predation. The categories of Critically Endangered or Endangered are applied to four of the local sea turtles (80%). It is important to protect the few good nesting beaches for the sea turtles of Guyana. We have documented each of the species now known to comprise the herpetofauna of Guyana by citing specimens that exist in scientific collections, many of which were collected and identified by us and colleagues, including students of the University of Guyana (UG). We also re-identified many old museum specimens collected by others in the past (e.g., collections of William Beebe) and we used documented publications and collection records of colleagues, most of whom have been working more recently. We present dichotomous keys for identifying representatives of the species known to occur in Guyana, and we present brief annotated species accounts. The accounts provide the current scientific name, original name (with citation of the original description, which we personally examined in the literature), some outdated names used in the recent past, type specimens, type localities, general geographic distribution, examples of voucher specimens from Guyana, coloration in life (and often a color photograph), and comments pointing out interesting subjects for future research.

Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washingto↗
USGS2012

Stratiform chromite deposit model

A new descriptive stratiform chromite deposit model was prepared which will provide a framework for understanding the characteristics of stratiform chromite deposits worldwide. Previous stratiform chromite deposit models developed by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) have been referred to as Bushveld chromium, because the Bushveld Complex in South Africa is the only stratified, mafic-ultramafic intrusion presently mined for chromite and is the most intensely researched. As part of the on-going effort by the USGS Mineral Resources Program to update existing deposit models for the upcoming national mineral resource assessment, this revised stratiform chromite deposit model includes new data on the geological, mineralogical, geophysical, and geochemical attributes of stratiform chromite deposits worldwide. This model will be a valuable tool in future chromite resource and environmental assessments and supplement previously published models used for mineral resource evaluation. Stratiform chromite deposits are found throughout the world, but the chromitite seams of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa, are the largest and most intensely researched. The chromite ore is located primarily in massive chromitite seams and, less abundantly, in disseminated chromite-bearing layers, both of which occur in the ultramafic section of large, layered mafic-ultramafic stratiform complexes. These mafic-ultramafic intrusions mainly formed in stable cratonic settings or during rift-related events during the Archean or early Proterozoic, although exceptions exist. The chromitite seams are cyclic in nature as well as laterally contiguous throughout the entire intrusion. Gangue minerals include olivine, pyroxenes (orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene), plagioclase, sulfides (pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, pentlandite, bornite), platinum group metals (mainly laurite, cooperite, braggite), and alteration minerals. A few deposits also contain rutile and ilmenite. The alteration phases include serpentine, chlorite, talc, magnetite, kaemmererite, uvarovite, hornblende, and carbonate minerals, such as calcite and dolomite. Stratiform chromite deposits are primarily hosted by peridotites, harzburgites, dunites, pyroxenites, troctolites, and anorthosites. Although metamorphism may have altered the ultramafic regions of layered intrusions postdeposition, only igneous processes are responsible for formation. From a diagnostic standpoint and for assessment purposes, they have no temporal or spatial relation to sedimentary rocks. The exact mechanisms responsible for the development of stratiform chromite deposits and the large, layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions where they are found are highly debated. The leading argument postulates that a parent magma mixed with a more primitive magma during magma chamber recharge. The partially differentiated magma could then be forced into the chromite stability field, resulting in the massive chromitite layers found in stratiform complexes. Contamination of the parent magma by localized assimilation of felsic country rock at the roof of the magma chamber has also been proposed as a mechanism of formation. Others suggest that changes in pressure or oxygen fugacity may be responsible for the occurrence of massive chromitite seams in layered mafic, ultramafic intrusions. The massive chromitite layers contain high levels of chromium and strong associations with platinum group elements. Anomalously high magnesium concentrations as well as low sodium, potassium, and phosphorus concentrations are also important geochemical features of stratiform chromite deposits. The presence of orthopyroxenite in many of the deposits suggests high silica and high magnesium concentrations in the parent magma. Most environmental concerns associated with the mining and processing of chromite ore focus on the solubility of chromium and its oxidation state. Although trivalent chromium (Cr 3+ ) is an essential micronutrient for humans, hexavalent chromium (Cr 6+ ) is highly toxic. Chromium-bearing solid phases that occur in the chromite ore-processing residue, for example, can effect the geochemical behavior and oxidation state of chromium in the environment.

Scientific Investigations Report↗
USGS2022

Multi-objective modeling as a decision-support tool for free-roaming horse management

Decisions related to controversial problems in natural resource management receive the greatest support when they account for multiple objectives of stakeholders in a structured and transparent fashion. In the United States, management of free-roaming horses ( Equus caballus ; horses) is a controversial multiple-objective problem because disparate stakeholder groups have varying objectives and opinions about how to manage fast-growing horse populations in ways that sustain both natural ecosystems and healthy horses. Despite much decision-support research on management alternatives that prevent excessive population size or cost, horse management decisions still receive resistance from a variety of stakeholder groups, potentially because decisions fail to explicitly or transparently account for multiple objectives of diverse stakeholders. Here, we used a predictive model for horse populations to evaluate the degree to which alternative management strategies involving removals and fertility control treatment with the immunocontraceptive vaccine PZP-22 maximize 4 objectives in horse management: maximize ecosystem health, maximize horse health, minimize effects on horse behavior, and minimize management cost. We simulated scenarios varying in management action, frequency, magnitude, and starting population size over a 10-year interval and evaluated scenario performance with a weighted multiple-objective utility reward function. Management involving high-magnitude removals along with PZP-22 treatment generally outperformed other alternatives by achieving higher reward relative to alternatives in 2 scenario analyses. Simulation of 1,372 scenarios at 5 starting population sizes generally found that management with biannual removals and 2 doses of PZP-22 treatment for half of eligible females during years 1 and 5 generated the most rewarding outcomes. However, a removal scenario with more frequent PZP-22 application generated the greatest reward when starting population size was already within target population size range. Our paper demonstrates how values and objectives of diverse stakeholders can be used to support management decisions in ways that might lead to greater acceptance of decisions by a broad array of stakeholder groups.

Human-Wildlife Interactions↗
USGS2018

Public views of wetlands and waterfowl conservation in the United States—Results of a survey to inform the 2018 update of the North American Waterfowl Management Plan

Executive Summary This report provides information from a general public survey conducted in early 2017 to help inform the North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP) 2018 update. This report is intended for use by the NAWMP advisory committees and anyone interested in the human dimensions of wetlands and waterfowl management. A mail-out survey was sent to 5,000 addresses in the United States, which were selected randomly in proportion to the population of each State. A total of 1,030 completed surveys representing 49 States were returned, resulting in a 23 percent overall response rate. When comparing the demographics of the respondents to the U.S. census data, this sample overrepresented people who are male, older, highly educated, and white. Data were weighted on gender and age to make the results more representative of the overall U.S. population. Additionally, this sample had higher participation rates in all wildlife-related recreation activities than has been found in previous studies; this indicates there may have been selection bias, with people interested in nature-related topics more likely to complete the survey. Therefore, results likely represent a segment of the U.S. public that is more oriented toward and aware of wildlife and conservation issues than the general public as a whole. Because of this bias, responses for each question were also broken down by recreationist type (hunters, anglers, wildlife viewers, and no wildlife-related recreation). Additionally, responses for each question were split by administrative flyway (Atlantic, Central, Mississippi, Pacific) and residency (urban, urban cluster, rural) to better understand the different groups. Most respondents knew of wetlands in their local area or community, and more than half had visited wetlands in the previous 12 months. Of those who had visited wetlands, the most common reasons were for walking/hiking/biking and enjoying nature/picnicking. In addition, this sample was very concerned about the reduction or loss of ecosystem services resulting from wetlands degradation or loss. A majority of respondents were somewhat or very concerned about 9 out of 10 wetlands benefits, with hunting opportunities being the only benefit the majority of people were not concerned about. People were the most concerned about clean water, clean air, and providing a home for wildlife. In contrast, people were least concerned about hunting opportunities and wetlands providing scenic places for inspiration or spiritual renewal. Communication about wetlands that focuses on habitat, clean air, and clean water may resonate with the widest variety of people. However, if communication is targeted toward wildlife-related recreationists, including more information about the recreation benefits of wetlands and emphasizing habitat benefits may be the most effective. Many people reported having participated in conservation behaviors in the last year. The most popular activity was making the yard more desirable to wildlife, with more than three-fourths of respondents participating, followed by donating money to support wildlife/habitat conservation and talking to others in their community about conservation issues. There was lower participation in conservation behavior specifically related to wetlands and waterfowl, with two-fifths of respondents voting for candidates or ballot issues to support wetlands/waterfowl conservation and one-third advocating for political action to conserve wetlands/waterfowl. In order to better understand how to reach out to the public on nature-related topics, preferences in information channels and trust in information sources were explored. Respondents were mostly likely to want to receive their information through personal experience, by reading or accessing online content, and through watching visual media online. People were least likely to want to receive information through listening to recorded audio media, attending educational opportunities, and listening to live audio media. These results emphasize the importance of having content available online in an easily accessible and appealing format. Visual media in particular seems to be preferred across a wide variety of people. Additionally, people had the highest trust in scientific organizations, universities/educational organizations, and friends/family/neighbors/colleagues. The least trusted sources were national media/news, religious organizations, and local media/news. Urban respondents had higher trust levels overall, particularly for the government. Hunters and those in rural areas had lower levels of trust in the government but higher trust in family/friends. In this sample, few respondents reported hunting waterfowl (5 percent) or hunting other game (16 percent) in the last year. Additionally, few respondents said they were very or somewhat likely to hunt waterfowl in the following 12 months. Even after considering that self-selection bias would make it more likely for hunters to respond to the survey, the relatively small number of respondents who identified as hunters reinforces that engagement of other wildlife-related recreationists is critical to meeting the third goal of the NAWMP 2012 revision—to increase numbers of wetlands/waterfowl conservationists. Many people also had negative perceptions of hunting. Half of the respondents stated that hunting would be unpleasant, and two-fifths believed hunting would be boring. In contrast, people had more favorable attitudes toward birdwatching, with only one-sixth saying it would be unpleasant and less than one-third saying it would be boring. A majority of respondents thought they could easily go hunting or birdwatching in the following 12 months. Overall, people had much more positive views toward birdwatching and expressed fewer barriers to participating in it. When asked what would prevent them from hunting, the most frequently stated reasons were moral opposition, no interest, personal health, and time constraints; for birdwatching, the most popular responses were nothing, no interest, and time constraints. These responses indicate it may be beneficial to move beyond hunting and find ways for other groups, such as birdwatchers, to play a more active role in conservation. Although not many people hunted and many people tended to have negative attitudes toward hunting, over three-fourths of people said they knew a hunter. Given that wildlife viewers, those who did not participate in wildlife-related recreation, and urban residents tended to have negative attitudes toward hunting and (or) were not interested in participating, attempting to recruit them to participate in hunting may not be effective. However, given how many people across all groups knew a hunter and the relatively high levels of trust people had in their friends/family, hunters may be effective ambassadors for promoting waterfowl and wetlands conservation among nonhunters. Additionally, because people had less preference for viewing waterfowl and other game birds compared to their preference for seeing hummingbirds and birds of prey, conservation efforts that extend beyond waterfowl and include other species that benefit from wetlands may have more appeal to a broader range of people.

Open-File Report↗
USGS2018

A statement of common ground regarding the role of wildfire in forested landscapes of the western United States

For millennia, wildfires have markedly influenced forests and non-forested landscapes of the western United States (US), and they are increasingly seen as having substantial impacts on society and nature. There is growing concern over what kinds and amounts of fire will achieve desirable outcomes and limit harmful effects on people and nature. Moreover, the increasing complexity surrounding cost and management of wildfires suggests that science should play a more prominent role in informing decisions about the need for fire in nature, and the need for society to adapt to the inevitable occurrence of different kinds and amounts of fire and smoke. Scientists widely view the natural wildfire regime as essential to western US forest ecosystem functioning. However, debates continue over how much low-, moderate-, and high severity fire is “natural” or desirable in these forests. Ongoing disagreement centers on the characteristics and importance of historical proportions and patch size distributions of low-, moderate-, and high-severity fires of dry, moist, and cold forests, and on the ecological consequences of changing fire-patch patterns and relative abundances. Scientists also debate the relative importance of climate and extreme weather versus fuel as drivers of high-severity fire, as well as the effectiveness and value of fuel treatments for reducing risks of undesired fire effects. Climate research shows that we should expect shifting future climates in all ecoregions. These expected changes make it difficult for scientists, land managers, and decision-makers to know the degree to which future forest management should be informed by historical conditions. There also is disagreement about how to make western forests more resilient to future disruptions in both climatic and fire regimes. To complicate matters, areas of scientific agreement -- the “common ground” shared by those in the research community -- are poorly articulated. Thus, the focus of the Fire Research Consensus (FRC) project has been to identify common ground among scientists, and provide a summary that can inform management. Land and fire managers are one audience for this report, as are stakeholders and the interested public. Our analysis, which results from extensive scientific literature reviews and questionnaires sent to western fire scientists and land managers, is summarized in nine key topics: A. Fire history and fire ecology vary with geography. B. Human impacts and management history vary with geography. C. Fire is a keystone process, which occurs in almost all western US forest types. D. Knowledge of historical range of variability (HRV) is useful but does not dictate land management goals. E. Forest structure, composition, and fuels have changed, affecting burn severity and fire extent. F. Climate and fuels both influence current fire sizes and their severities. G. The role of changing climatic conditions is increasingly important. H. Multiple fire ecology and fire history research approaches can be useful for characterizing fire regimes. I. Many existing fire management tools and strategies can be useful moving forward. We found much common ground that will be useful to scientists, managers, citizens, and policy decision-makers. For example, there is wide agreement among scientists that fire is one of the most essential influences on western forests and that more fire is needed on most landscapes, but not all wildfire behavior or extent will do. Fires can produce more positive benefits and fewer negative impacts when they burn with an ecologically appropriate mix and pattern of low, moderate, and high severity. Managers will need assistance and funding to create landscape conditions that favor more desirable fire behavior at broad spatial scales. Note that much societal impact from western wildfires occurs in non-forested landscapes that are not covered in this report, where findings would differ from those reported here for forested landscapes. We summarize additional key points below.

Western United States↗