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At least 127 records · Page 7Linked to original sources

USGS2012

Estimating the benefits of land imagery in environmental applications: a case study in nonpoint source pollution of groundwater

Moderate-resolution land imagery (MRLI) is crucial to a more complete assessment of the cumulative, landscape-level effect of agricultural land use and land cover on environmental quality. If this improved assessment yields a net social benefit, then that benefit reflects the value of information (VOI) from MRLI. Environmental quality and the capacity to provide ecosystem services evolve because of human actions, changing natural conditions, and their interaction with natural physical processes. The human actions, in turn, are constrained and redirected by many institutions and regulations such as agricultural, energy, and environmental policies. We present a general framework for bringing together sociologic, biologic, physical, hydrologic, and geologic processes at meaningful scales to interpret environmental implications of MRLI applications. We set out a specific application using MRLI observations to identify crop planting patterns and thus estimate surface management activities that influence groundwater resources over a regional landscape. We tailor the application to the characteristics of nonpoint source groundwater pollution hazards in Iowa to illustrate a general framework in a land use-hydrologic-economic system. In the example, MRLI VOI derives from reducing the risk of both losses to agricultural production and damage to human health and other consequences of contaminated groundwater.

Book chapter↗

USGS1995

United States Geological Survey, programs in Nevada

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has been collecting and interpreting natural-resources data in Nevada for more than 100 years. This long-term commitment enables planners to manage better the resources of a State noted for paradoxes. Although Nevada is one of the most sparsely populated States in the Nation, it has the fastest growing population (fig. 1). Although 90 percent of the land is rural, it is the fourth most urban State. Nevada is the most arid State and relies heavily on water resources. Historically, mining and agriculture have formed the basis of the economy; now tourism and urban development also have become important. The USGS works with more than 40 local, State, and other Federal agencies in Nevada to provide natural-resources information for immediate and long-term decisions. Subjects included in this fact sheet: Low-Level Radioactive-Waste Disposal Mining and Water in the Humboldt Basin Aquifer Systems in the Great Basin Water Allocation in Truckee and Carson Basins National Water-Quality Assessment Program Minerals Assessment for Land Management Irrigation Drainage Ground-Water Movement at Nevada Test Site Oil and Gas Resources National Mapping Program Digital Mapping and Aerial Photography Collection of Hydrologlc Data Geologic Mapping Earthquake Hazards Assessing Mineral Resources of the Subsurface Earth Observation Data Cooperative Programs

Nevada↗

USGS2015

Rates and patterns of surface deformation from laser scanning following the South Napa earthquake, California

The A.D. 2014 M6.0 South Napa earthquake, despite its moderate magnitude, caused significant damage to the Napa Valley in northern California (USA). Surface rupture occurred along several mapped and unmapped faults. Field observations following the earthquake indicated that the magnitude of postseismic surface slip was likely to approach or exceed the maximum coseismic surface slip and as such presented ongoing hazard to infrastructure. Using a laser scanner, we monitored postseismic deformation in three dimensions through time along 0.5 km of the main surface rupture. A key component of this study is the demonstration of proper alignment of repeat surveys using point cloud–based methods that minimize error imposed by both local survey errors and global navigation satellite system georeferencing errors. Using solid modeling of natural and cultural features, we quantify dextral postseismic displacement at several hundred points near the main fault trace. We also quantify total dextral displacement of initially straight cultural features. Total dextral displacement from both coseismic displacement and the first 2.5 d of postseismic displacement ranges from 0.22 to 0.29 m. This range increased to 0.33–0.42 m at 59 d post-earthquake. Furthermore, we estimate up to 0.15 m of vertical deformation during the first 2.5 d post-earthquake, which then increased by &sim;0.02 m at 59 d post-earthquake. This vertical deformation is not expressed as a distinct step or scarp at the fault trace but rather as a broad up-to-the-west zone of increasing elevation change spanning the fault trace over several tens of meters, challenging common notions about fault scarp development in strike-slip systems. Integrating these analyses provides three-dimensional mapping of surface deformation and identifies spatial variability in slip along the main fault trace that we attribute to distributed slip via subtle block rotation. These results indicate the benefits of laser scanner surveys along active faults and demonstrate that fine-scale variability in fault slip has been missed by traditional earthquake response methods.

California↗

USGS2001

Constructing event trees for volcanic crises

Event trees are useful frameworks for discussing probabilities of possible outcomes of volcanic unrest. Each branch of the tree leads from a necessary prior event to a more specific outcome, e.g., from an eruption to a pyroclastic flow. Where volcanic processes are poorly understood, probability estimates might be purely empirical - utilizing observations of past and current activity and an assumption that the future will mimic the past or follow a present trend. If processes are better understood, probabilities might be estimated from a theoritical model, either subjectively or by numerical simulations. Use of Bayes' theorem aids in the estimation of how fresh unrest raises (or lowers) the probabilities of eruptions. Use of event trees during volcanic crises can help volcanologists to critically review their analysis of hazard, and help officials and individuals to compare volcanic risks with more familiar risks. Trees also emphasize the inherently probabilistic nature of volcano forecasts, with multiple possible outcomes.

Bulletin of Volcanology↗

USGS2018

On the depth extent of co-seismic rupture

We investigate the implications of deformation experiments for the coseismic down‐dip extent of rupture in quasi‐dynamic, whole‐cycle earthquake models of a fault for which the depth of the transition between seismic and aseisimic fault slip depends on strain rate. The calculations use a dislocation fault model from Tse and Rice (1986) with a vertical strike‐slip orientation, mode III rupture, and variable along‐strike length. Our reference calculation is the original rheological representation of Tse and Rice with a strain‐rate‐independent transition. The primary calculations use two different representations of a strain‐rate‐dependent transition: (1) between rate‐weakening friction and dislocation creep and (2) between rate‐weakening and rate‐strengthening frictions. For both these cases, when fault strength is high (friction between 0.5 and 0.6) and the transition is sharp, coseismic slip extends a small distance (1–2 km) below the fixed temperature (depth) that is commonly used to define the rheological transition at the plate‐motion rate. Thus, coseismic slip occurs below the depth assumed in seismic hazard models using microseismicity or a chosen fixed‐temperature contour. Though significant coseismic slip occurs below the plate‐rate transition depth, the added moment is < 10 % "> < 10 % of the total. The deep extension is a region that is rheologically distinct; for example, deep coseismic slip can produce a stress increase rather than a stress drop. If friction is smaller, the deepening effect and its contribution to moment are larger. For all representations of the transition, average and surface slip increase with the along‐strike rupture length in a manner consistent with the limited data from natural observations. However, this property is not controlled by the assumed fault rheology; instead, it arises because the stiffness of the fault decreases weakly with fault length, an intrinsic and unrealistic property of the particular crustal scale fault model used.

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America↗

USGS2018

Hawai‘i and U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands

The U.S. Pacific Islands are culturally and environmentally diverse, treasured by the 1.9 million people who call them home. Pacific islands are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts due to their exposure and isolation, small size, low elevation (in the case of atolls), and concentration of infrastructure and economy along the coasts. A prevalent cause of year-to-year changes in climate patterns around the globe and in the Pacific Islands region is the El Niño –Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The El Niño and La Niña phases of ENSO can dramatically affect precipitation, air and ocean temperature, sea surface height, storminess, wave size, and trade winds. It is unknown exactly how the timing and intensity of ENSO will continue to change in the coming decades, but recent climate model results suggest a doubling in frequency of both El Niño and La Niña extremes in this century as compared to the 20th century under scenarios with more warming, including the higher scenario (RCP8.5). On islands, all natural sources of freshwater come from rainfall received within their limited land areas. Severe droughts are common, making water shortage one of the most important climate-related risks in the region. As temperature continues to rise and cloud cover decreases in some areas, evaporation is expected to increase, causing both reduced water supply and higher water demand. Streamflow in Hawai‘i has declined over approximately the past 100 years, consistent with observed decreases in rainfall. The impacts of sea level rise in the Pacific include coastal erosion, episodic flooding, permanent inundation, heightened exposure to marine hazards, and saltwater intrusion to surface water and groundwater systems. Sea level rise will disproportionately affect the tropical Pacific and potentially exceed the global average. Invasive species , landscape change, habitat alteration, and reduced resilience have resulted in extinctions and diminished ecosystem function. Inundation of atolls in the coming decades is projected to impact existing on-island ecosystems. Wildlife that relies on coastal habitats will likely also be severely impacted. In Hawaiʻi, coral reefs contribute an estimated $477 million to the local economy every year. Under projected warming of approximately 0.5°F per decade, all nearshore coral reefs in the Hawai‘i and Pacific Islands region will experience annual bleaching before 2050. An ecosystem -based approach to international management of open ocean fisheries in the Pacific that incorporates climate-informed catch limits is expected to produce more realistic future harvest levels and enhance ecosystem resilience. Indigenous communities of the Pacific derive their sense of identity from the islands. Emerging issues for Indigenous communities of the Pacific include the resilience of marine-managed areas and climate-induced human migration from their traditional lands. The rich body of traditional knowledge is place-based and localized and is useful in adaptation planning because it builds on intergenerational sharing of observations. Documenting the kinds of governance structures or decision-making hierarchies created for management of these lands and waters is also important as a learning tool that can be shared with other island communities. Across the region, groups are coming together to minimize damage and disruption from coastal flooding and inundation as well as other climate-related impacts. Social cohesion is already strong in many communities, making it possible to work together to take action. Early intervention can lower economic, environmental, social, and cultural costs and reduce or prevent conflict and displacement from ancestral land and resources.

Report↗

USGS2019

Spatial distribution of water level impact to back-barrier bays

Water level in semi-enclosed bays, landward of barrier islands, is mainly driven by offshore sea level fluctuations that are modulated by bay geometry and bathymetry, causing spatial variability in the ensuing response (transfer). Local wind setup can have a secondary role that depends on wind speed, fetch, and relative orientation of the wind direction and the bay. Inlet geometry and bathymetry primarily regulate the magnitude of the transfer between open ocean and bay. Tides and short-period offshore oscillations are more damped in the bays than longer-lasting offshore fluctuations, such as storm surge and sea level rise. We compare observed and modeled water levels at stations in a mid-Atlantic bay (Barnegat Bay) with offshore water level proxies. Observed water levels in Barnegat Bay are compared and combined with model results from the Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere-Wave-Sediment Transport (COAWST) modeling system to evaluate the spatial structure of the water level transfer. Analytical models based on the dimensional characteristics of the bay are used to combine the observed data and the numerical model results in a physically consistent approach. Model water level transfers match observed values at locations inside the Bay in the storm frequency band (transfers ranging from 70-100%) and tidal frequencies (10-55%). The contribution of frequency-dependent local setup caused by wind acting along the bay is also considered. The approach provides transfer estimates for locations inside the Bay where observations were not available resulting in a complete spatial characterization. The approach allows for the study of the Bay response to alternative forcing scenarios (landscape changes, future storms, and rising sea level). Detailed spatial estimates of water level transfer can inform decisions on inlet management and contribute to the assessment of current and future flooding hazard in back-barrier bays and along mainland shorelines.

Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences↗

USGS2025

Insights into widespread landsliding in southern Appalachia from Hurricane Helene

Between 23 and 27 September 2024, antecedent rain followed by Hurricane Helene produced one of the most damaging weather events in southern Appalachia history. The back-to-back storm events resulted in a maximum cumulative rainfall of 848 mm and hurricane-force wind gusts over 170 km/h in western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, and southwestern Virginia. The resulting regional flooding, landslides, and tree blowdown caused over 100 fatalities, damaged or destroyed critical infrastructure and thousands of structures, and severed connectivity across the region. Over the next several weeks, a multi-agency landslide response produced a rapid hazard assessment and mapped 2217 landslides, 55% of which damaged infrastructure or property. Orographic uplift enhanced rainfall, resulting in concentrated landsliding along the ~250 km swath of the Blue Ridge escarpment in western North Carolina. Landslides initiated predominantly on windward-facing (southeast-facing) slopes, and localized clustering of initiation points indicated a strong influence of hillslope-scale meteorological and geomorphic factors. Many shallow landslides mobilized into larger, highly mobile, and damaging debris flows that graded into floods. Here, we put our preliminary observations in the context of historical storm-driven landslide events and open new avenues for investigating the nature and extent of landslides and their effects in southern Appalachia and similar environments.

Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee↗

USGS2004

Natural avalanches and transportation: A case study from Glacier National Park, Montana, USA

In January 2004, two natural avalanches (destructive class 3) derailed a freight train in John F. Stevens Canyon, on the southern boundary of Glacier National Park. The railroad tracks were closed for 29 hours due to cleanup and lingering avalanche hazard, backing up 112km of trains and shutting down Amtrak’s passenger service. The incident marked the fourth time in three winters that natural avalanches have disrupted transportation in the canyon, which is also the route of U.S. Highway 2. It was the latest in a 94-year history of accidents that includes three fatalities and the destruction of a major highway bridge. Despite that history and the presence of over 40 avalanche paths in the 16km canyon, mitigation is limited to nine railroad snow sheds and occasional highway closures. This case study examines natural avalanche cycles of the past 28 winters using data from field observations, a Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) SNOTEL station, and data collected since 2001 at a high-elevation weather station. The avalanches occurred when storms with sustained snowfall buried a persistent near-surface faceted layer and/or were followed by rain-on-snow or dramatic warming (as much as 21 o C in 30 minutes). Natural avalanche activity peaked when temperatures clustered near freezing (mean of -1.5 o C at 1800m elev.). Avalanches initiated through rapid loading, rain falling on new snow, and/ or temperature-related changes in the mechanical properties of slabs. Lastly, the case study describes how recent incidents have prompted a unique partnership of land management agencies, private corporations and non-profit organizations to develop an avalanche mitigation program for the transportation corridor.

Montana↗

USGS2024

Forecasting inundation of catastrophic landslides from precursory creep

Forecasting landslide inundation upon catastrophic failure is crucial for reducing casualties, yet it remains a long-standing challenge owing to the complex nature of landslides. Recent global studies indicate that catastrophic hillslope failures are commonly preceded by a period of precursory creep, motivating a novel scheme to foresee their hazard. Here, we showcase an approach to hindcast landslide inundation by linking satellite-captured precursory displacements to modeling of consequent granular-fluid flows. We present its application to the 2021 Chunchi, Ecuador landslide, which failed catastrophically and evolved into a mobile debris flow after four months of precursory creep, destroying 68 homes along its lengthy flow path. Underpinned by uncertainty quantification and in situ validations, we highlight the feasibility and potential of forecasting landslide inundation damage using observable precursors. This forecast approach is broadly applicable for flow hazards initiated from geomaterial failures.

Geophysical Research Letters↗

USGS2010

Predicting coastal cliff erosion using a Bayesian probabilistic model

Regional coastal cliff retreat is difficult to model due to the episodic nature of failures and the along-shore variability of retreat events. There is a growing demand, however, for predictive models that can be used to forecast areas vulnerable to coastal erosion hazards. Increasingly, probabilistic models are being employed that require data sets of high temporal density to define the joint probability density function that relates forcing variables (e.g. wave conditions) and initial conditions (e.g. cliff geometry) to erosion events. In this study we use a multi-parameter Bayesian network to investigate correlations between key variables that control and influence variations in cliff retreat processes. The network uses Bayesian statistical methods to estimate event probabilities using existing observations. Within this framework, we forecast the spatial distribution of cliff retreat along two stretches of cliffed coast in Southern California. The input parameters are the height and slope of the cliff, a descriptor of material strength based on the dominant cliff-forming lithology, and the long-term cliff erosion rate that represents prior behavior. The model is forced using predicted wave impact hours. Results demonstrate that the Bayesian approach is well-suited to the forward modeling of coastal cliff retreat, with the correct outcomes forecast in 70–90% of the modeled transects. The model also performs well in identifying specific locations of high cliff erosion, thus providing a foundation for hazard mapping. This approach can be employed to predict cliff erosion at time-scales ranging from storm events to the impacts of sea-level rise at the century-scale.

Marine Geology↗

USGS2022

Very low frequency earthquakes in between the seismogenic and tremor zones in Cascadia?

Megathrust earthquakes and their associated tsunamis cause some of the worst natural disasters. In addition to earthquakes, a wide range of slip behaviors are present at subduction zones, including slow earthquakes that span multiple orders of spatial and temporal scales. Understanding these events may shed light on the stress or strength conditions of the megathrust fault. Out of all types of slow earthquakes, very low frequency earthquakes (VLFEs) are most enigmatic because they are difficult to detect reliably, and the physical nature of VLFEs are poorly understood. Here we show three VLFEs in Cascadia that were dynamically triggered by a 2009 Mw 6.9 Canal de Ballenas earthquake in the Gulf of California. The VLFEs likely locate in between the seismogenic zone and the Cascadia episodic tremor and slip (ETS) zone, including one event with a moment magnitude of 5.7. This is the largest VLFE reported to date, causing clear geodetic signals. Our results show that the Cascadia megathrust fault might slip rapidly at some spots in this gap zone, and such a permissible slip behavior has direct seismic hazard implications for coastal communities and perhaps further inland. Further, the observed seismic sources may represent a new class of slip events, whose characteristics do not fit current understandings of slow or regular earthquakes.

Oregon, Washington↗

USGS2024

Rupture jumping and seismic complexity in models of earthquake cycles for fault stepovers with off‐fault plasticity

Fault stepovers are prime examples of geometric complexity in natural fault zones that may affect seismic hazard by determining whether an earthquake rupture continues propagating or abruptly stops. However, the long‐term pattern of seismicity near‐fault stepovers and underlying mechanisms of rupture jumping in the context of earthquake cycles are rarely studied. Leveraging a hybrid numerical scheme combining the finite element and the spectral boundary integral methods, FEBE, we carry out fully dynamic simulations of sequences of earthquakes and aseismic slip for both compressive and tensile stepovers with off‐fault plasticity. We consider a rate‐and‐state friction law for the fault friction and pressure‐sensitive Drucker–Prager plasticity for the off‐fault bulk response. We observe that the accumulation of plastic deformation, an indication of off‐fault damage, is significantly different in the two cases, with more plastic deformation projected in the overlapping region for the tensile stepover. The seismic pattern for a tensile stepover is more complex than for a compressive stepover, and incorporating plasticity also increases complexity, relative to the elastic case. A tensile stepover with off‐fault plasticity shows rupture segmentation, temporal clustering, and frequent rupture jumping from one fault to another. These results shed light on possible mechanisms of rupture jumping in fault stepovers as well as the long‐term evolution of the fault zone.

Bulletin of the Seismological Șociety of America↗

USGS2015

“Points requiring elucidation” about Hawaiian volcanism

Hawaiian volcanoes, which are easily accessed and observed at close range, are among the most studied on the planet and have spurred great advances in the geosciences, from understanding deep Earth processes to forecasting volcanic eruptions. More than a century of continuous observation and study of Hawai‘i's volcanoes has also sharpened focus on those questions that remain unanswered. Although there is good evidence that volcanism in Hawai‘i is the result of a high-temperature upwelling plume from the mantle, the source composition and dynamics of the plume are controversial. Eruptions at the surface build the volcanoes of Hawai‘i, but important topics, including how the volcanoes grow and collapse and how magma is stored and transported, continue to be subjects of intense research. Forecasting volcanic activity is based mostly on pattern recognition, but determining and predicting the nature of eruptions, especially in serving the critical needs of hazards mitigation, require more realistic models and a greater understanding of what drives eruptive activity. These needs may be addressed by better integration among disciplines as well as by developing dynamic physics- and chemistry-based models that more thoroughly relate the physiochemical behavior of Hawaiian volcanism, from the deep Earth to the surface, to geological, geochemical, and geophysical data.

Hawaii↗

USGS2022

Ground failure triggered by the 7 January 2020 M6.4 Puerto Rico earthquake

The 7 January 2020 M 6.4 Puerto Rico earthquake, the mainshock of an extended earthquake sequence, triggered significant ground failure. In this study, we detail the ground failure that occurred based largely on a postearthquake field reconnaissance campaign that we conducted. We documented more than 300 landslides, mainly rock falls that were concentrated in areas where peak ground acceleration (PGA) exceeded 30% g ; sparse smaller landslides occurred in highly susceptible areas more than 50 km from the epicenter and at PGA values <10% g . Though some of the largest mass movements were in natural slopes, rock falls in road cuts had more impact because they caused widespread transportation disruption. Some structures also were damaged by landslides, but no landslide‐related fatalities were reported. Liquefaction and related lateral spreading were severe in some areas, causing damage to residential and commercial structures and a power plant. Most of the liquefaction occurred in coastal areas where shaking exceeded 50% g , though some of the most damaging instances were in Ponce, where shaking estimates were as low as 20% g . In this article, we summarize the most notable ground failures and detail the overall patterns that we observed. The observations and compiled inventory datasets presented here are valuable because no island‐wide hazard maps for earthquake‐triggered landslides or liquefaction have been developed for Puerto Rico, and postevent inventories are vital for such an effort. In general, the datasets presented here contribute to a global understanding of coseismic ground‐failure hazard by presenting detailed observations for a relatively moderate ground‐failure event with well‐constrained shaking estimates; current models and expectations are biased by the tendency to collect detailed datasets mainly for exceptional events.

Puerto Rico↗

USGS2023

Toward a total water level forecast of the Great Lakes

The combined effect of storm surge and large waves is the main driving mechanism that erodes beaches, inundates low-lying areas, leading to millions of dollars in property damage, loss of natural resources, and lives. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) aims to expand the real-time total water level (TWL) forecast provided in the Operational Total Water Level and Coastal Change Forecasts (TWL&CC) to the Great Lakes short- (0 – 36 hours) to medium-term (3 – 5 days) coastal-hazard forecasts to inform planners and emergency responders. This study assesses the skill of forecast water levels and wave characteristics required as input to the TWL forecasts. It finds that, while skill generally decreases as forecast period increases, these data are suitable as input to the TWL forecast system. As the TWL predictions depend on the water level and wave forecasts, validation against field observations allow evaluation of their suitability for the Great Lakes. These results have implications on the prediction of water levels and their potential impacts on coastal resiliency in North America.

Great Lakes↗

USGS2021

Spatiotemporal clustering of great earthquakes on a transform fault controlled by geometry

Minor changes in geometry along the length of mature strike-slip faults may act as conditional barriers to earthquake rupture, terminating some and allowing others to pass. This hypothesis remains largely untested because palaeoearthquake data that constrain spatial and temporal patterns of fault rupture are generally imprecise. Here we develop palaeoearthquake event data that encompass the last 20 major-to-great earthquakes along approximately 320 km of the Alpine Fault in New Zealand with sufficient temporal resolution and spatial coverage to reveal along-strike patterns of rupture extent. The palaeoearthquake record shows that earthquake terminations tend to cluster in time near minor along-strike changes in geometry. These terminations limit the length to which rupture can grow and produce two modes of earthquake behaviour characterized by phases of major ( M w 7–8) and great ( M w > 8) earthquakes. Physics-based simulations of seismic cycles closely resemble our observations when parameterized with realistic fault geometry. Switching between the rupture modes emerges due to heterogeneous stress states that evolve over multiple seismic cycles in response to along-strike differences in geometry. These geometric complexities exert a first-order control on rupture behaviour that is not currently accounted for in fault-source models for seismic hazard.

South Island↗

USGS2018

Coastal National Elevation Database

The Coastal National Elevation Database (CoNED) Applications Project develops enhanced topographic (land elevation) and bathymetric (water depth) datasets that serve as valuable resources for coastal hazards research (Danielson and others, 2016; Thatcher and others, 2016). These datasets are used widely for mapping inundation zones from riverine flood events, hurricanes, and sea-level rise and for other Earth science applications, such as sediment transport, erosion, and storm impact models. CoNED is a U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Coastal-Marine Hazards and Resources Program (formerly Coastal and Marine Geology Program) activity centered at the USGS Earth Resources Observation and Science Center and distributed at other USGS Science Centers. As part of the vision for a 3D Nation, the CoNED Project is working collaboratively with the USGS National Geospatial Program, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers through the Interagency Working Group on Ocean and Coastal Mapping to build integrated elevation models in the coastal zone by assimilating the land surface topography with littoral zone and continental shelf bathymetry. Several nongovernmental organizations and Federal agencies, including the Department of the Interior Pacific Islands Climate Adaptation Science Center, the National Park Service, the Nature Conservancy, the Louisiana Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority, and numerous academic institutions, partner to make CoNED a success.

Fact Sheet↗