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At least 1,099 records · Page 61Linked to original sources

USGS2019

Consistent compensatory growth offsets poor condition in trout populations

1. Compensatory growth – when individuals in poor condition grow rapidly to “catch up” to conspecifics – may be a mechanism that allows individuals to tolerate stressful environmental conditions, both abiotic and biotic. This phenomenon has been documented fairly widely in laboratory and field experiments, but evidence for compensatory growth in the wild is scarce. 2. Cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii subsp) are cold-water specialists that inhabit streams in montane ecosystems where seasonal conditions can be harsh and growth rates vary greatly among seasons. Understanding if individuals compensate for periods of reduced growth and body condition will improve understanding of the requirements of fish throughout their life-cycle and across freshwater habitats. 3. We quantified compensatory growth of juvenile cutthroat trout using extensive mark-recapture data from 11 stream populations (1,125 individuals) and two subspecies inhabiting a wide range of ecological settings in the northern Rocky Mountains, USA. Our objectives were to determine how growth was linked across seasons and determine if individuals behaviorally compensated for depressed body condition via emigration. 4. Fish in relatively poor condition consistently demonstrated compensatory growth in mass during subsequent seasons. In contrast, fish in relatively better condition responded with positive growth in length during the summer signaling these fish may be better suited to headwater environments; no compensatory growth in length was found during the winter. Furthermore, we found no evidence that individual condition mediated migration tendencies of fish to seek more favorable habitat. 5. Across a wide range of environmental conditions, we found consistent empirical support for compensatory growth in mass in the wild. A critical next step is to quantify how changing abiotic and biotic conditions influence the ability of stream fishes to compensate for locally or seasonally challenging conditions, thereby affecting long-term resiliency, viability, and adaptation in the face of changing environmental conditions.

Montana, Wyoming↗

USGS2020

Insects in high-elevation streams: Life in extreme environments imperiled by climate change

Climate change is altering conditions in high-elevation streams worldwide, with largely unknown effects on resident communities of aquatic insects. Here, we review the challenges of climate change for high-elevation aquatic insects and how they may respond, focusing on current gaps in knowledge. Understanding current effects and predicting future impacts will depend on progress in three areas. First, we need better descriptions of the multivariate physical challenges and interactions among challenges in high-elevation streams, which include low but rising temperatures, low oxygen supply and increasing oxygen demand, high and rising exposure to ultraviolet radiation, low ionic strength, and variable but shifting flow regimes. These factors are often studied in isolation even though they covary in nature and interact in space and time. Second, we need a better mechanistic understanding of how physical conditions in streams drive the performance of individual insects. Environment-performance links are mediated by physiology and behavior, which are poorly known in high-elevation taxa. Third, we need to define the scope and importance of potential responses across levels of biological organization. Short-term responses are defined by the tolerances of individuals, their capacities to perform adequately across a range of conditions, and behaviors used to exploit local, fine-scale variation in abiotic factors. Longer term responses to climate change, however, may include individual plasticity and evolution of populations. Whether high-elevation aquatic insects can mitigate climatic risks via these pathways is largely unknown.

Global Change Biology↗

USGS1960

The trumpeter swan: its history, habits, and population in the U.S

This report on the trumpeter evolved from studies made from 1948 to 1957 when I served first as an assistant and later as manager, of the Red Rock Lakes Refuge. I have also drawn extensively on the records of the National Park Service, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the National Museum in Washington, D. C. Other pertinent information bearing on the life history of the trumpeter swan in the United States has been extracted from published articles, unpublished reports and records, firsthand accounts and correspondence. This account includes a historical record of this bird in the United States and Alaska, an outline of its habits and characteristics in its native Rocky Mountain environment, and furnishes information necessary to guide its future.

North American Fauna↗

USGS2003

Estimates of global cyanobacterial biomass and its distribution

We estimated global cyanobacterial biomass in the main reservoirs of cyanobacteria on Earth: marine and freshwater plankton, arid land soil crusts, and endoliths. Estimates were based on typical population density values as measured during our research, or as obtained from literature surveys, which were then coupled with data on global geographical area coverage. Among the marine plankton, the global biomass of Prochlorococcus reaches 120 × 10 12 grams of carbon (g C), and that of Synechoccus some 43 × 10 12 g C. This makes Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus , in that order, the most abundant cyanobacteria on Earth. Tropical marine blooms of Trichodesmium account for an additional 10 × 10 12 g C worldwide. In terrestrial environments, the mass of cyanobacteria in arid land soil crusts is estimated to reach 54 × 10 12 g C and that of arid land endolithic communities an additional 14 × 10 12 g C. The global biomass of planktic cyanobacteria in lakes is estimated to be around 3 × 10 12 g C. Our conservative estimates, which did not include some potentially significant biomass reservoirs such as polar and subarctic areas, topsoils in subhumid climates, and shallow marine and freshwater benthos, indicate that the total global cyanobacterial biomass is in the order of 3 × 10 14 g C, surpassing a thousand million metric tons (10 15 g) of wet biomass.

Algological Studies↗

USGS2007

Geoinformatics 2007: data to knowledge

Geoinformatics is the term used to describe a variety of efforts to promote collaboration between the computer sciences and the geosciences to solve complex scientific questions. It refers to the distributed, integrated digital information system and working environment that provides innovative means for the study of the Earth systems, as well as other planets, through use of advanced information technologies. Geoinformatics activities range from major research and development efforts creating new technologies to provide high-quality, sustained production-level services for data discovery, integration and analysis, to small, discipline-specific efforts that develop earth science data collections and data analysis tools serving the needs of individual communities. The ultimate vision of Geoinformatics is a highly interconnected data system populated with high quality, freely available data, as well as, a robust set of software for analysis, visualization, and modeling.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2008

Geoinformatics 2008 - Data to Knowledge

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2022

Golden eagle occupancy surveys and monitoring strategy in coastal southern California, United States

Golden eagles ( Aquila chrysaetos ) are of increasing conservation concern in western North America. Effective conservation measures for this wide-ranging, federally protected raptor species require monitoring frameworks that accommodate strong inference on the status of breeding populations across vast landscapes. We used a broad-scale sampling design to identify relationships between landscape conditions, detection rates, and site occupancy by territorial pairs of golden eagles in coastal southern California, United States. In 2016 and 2017, we surveyed 175 territory-sized sample sites (13.9-km 2 randomly selected grid cells) up to four times each year and detected a pair of eagles at least once in 22 (12.6%) sites. The probability of detecting pairs of eagles varied substantially between years and declined with increasing amounts of forest cover at survey sites, which obscured observations of eagles during ground-based surveys. After accounting for variable detection, the mean estimate of expected site occupancy by eagle pairs was 0.156 (SE = 0.081). Site-level estimates of occupancy were greatest (>0.30) at sample sites with more rugged terrain conditions, <20% human development, and lower amounts of scrubland vegetation cover. The proportion of a sample site with open grassland or forest cover was not strongly correlated with occupancy. We estimated that approximately 16% of the 5,338-km 2 sampling frame was used by resident pairs of golden eagles, corresponding to a sparsely distributed population of about 60 pairs (95% CI = 19 – 151 pairs). Our study provided baseline data for future surveys of golden eagles along with a widely applicable monitoring framework for identifying spatial conservation priorities in urbanizing landscapes.

California↗

USGS2020

Use of underwater videography to quantify conditions utilized by endangered Moapa Dace While spawning

Advances in underwater camera technology provide an affordable means to quantify the environmental conditions under which fish spawn. This information is important for investigating spawning ecology, managing habitat, or providing information for captive breeding programs. We deployed 12 modified security cameras underwater to identify environmental conditions related to the spawning behavior of the critically endangered Moapa Dace Moapa coriacea , a Mojave Desert stream-dwelling cyprinid that had never been observed spawning and that had fallen to a low of 459 individual fish 4 years prior to this study. Camera sites were selected systematically along the stream to represent the variety of conditions available. We divided the field of view in front of each camera into a grid, and we estimated both the available environment and the habitat over which Moapa Dace showed spawning behavior. From over 4,000 10-min video clips that were randomly selected for analysis, 13 spawning events were identified. Using nonparametric contingency table analyses, we found that Moapa Dace selected depths between 30 and 34 cm, water velocities between 0.11 and 0.17 m/s, cobble substrate, and overhead instream cover. Although the recorded sample size of spawning events was small (13), our sample represents a large proportion of events given that the world's entire population of Moapa Dace at the time was approximately 650 fish distributed over multiple kilometers of stream length. Environmental conditions identified by this study were replicated in laboratory facilities to successfully propagate Moapa Dace for the first time in captivity. These propagation methods are now used in a management setting by the Nevada Department of Wildlife to maintain a captive population of this rare fish. Camera methods can be effective in helping to identify spawning conditions where water clarity is sufficient.

Nevada↗

USGS2002

Occurrence of antibiotics in water from fish hatcheries

The recent discovery of pharmaceuticals in streams across the United States (Kolpin and others, 2002) has raised the visibility and need for monitoring of antibiotics in the environment. Possible sources of antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals in streams may include fish hatcheries. This fact sheet presents the results from a preliminary study of fish hatcheries across the United States for the occurrence and concentration of antibiotics present in fish hatchery water. The study examines both sufonamides and tetracyclines. Sulfonamides are synthetic compounds, and tetracyclines are naturally occurring compounds. The use of antibiotics added to specially formulated feed is a common practice in fish hatcheries to treat and prevent bacterial infections in large fish populations. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved antibiotics are oxytetracycline-HCI, sulfamerazine, and a combination drug containing ormetoprim and sulfadiamethoxine (U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2003). During January 2001–June 2002, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Organic Geochemistry Research Laboratory (OGRL), Lawrence, Kansas, cooperatively collected water samples from 13 fish hatcheries across the United States (fig. 1) with the assistance of hatchery operators. A method for the analysis of antibiotics was developed and used to identify and quantify these compounds in fish hatchery water (Lindsey and others, 2001). This study was completed to determine if trace levels of antibiotics [approximately 1 microgram per liter (μg/L) or 1 part per billion or greater occurred] in which water associated with fish hatcheries, which are a potential source of these compounds in surface water.

Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, New York, Oklahoma, Oregon↗

USGS2004

Sidescan sonar imagery and surficial geologic interpretation of the sea floor off Branford, Connecticut

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection (CT DEP), Figure 1 - Map of Study Areahas produced detailed geologic maps of the sea floor in Long Island Sound, a major East Coast estuary surrounded by the most densely populated region of the United States. These studies have built upon cooperative research between the USGS and the State of Connecticut that was initiated in 1982. The current phase of this research program is directed toward studies of sea-floor sediment distribution, processes that control sediment distribution, nearshore environmental concerns, and the relation of benthic community structures to the sea-floor geology. Anthropogenic wastes, toxic chemicals, and changes in land-use patterns resulting from residential, commercial, and recreational development have stressed the environment of the Sound, causing degradation and potential loss of benthic habitats (Koppelman and others, 1976; Long Island Sound Study, 1994). Detailed maps of the sea floor are needed to help evaluate the extent of adverse impacts and to help wisely manage resources in the future. Therefore, in a continuing effort to better understand Long Island Sound, we are constructing and interpreting sidescan sonar mosaics (complete-coverage acoustic images of the sea floor) within specific areas of special interest (Poppe and Polloni, 1998). The mosaic presented herein, which was produced during survey H11043 by NOAA 's Atlantic Hydrographic Branch, covers approximately 41.1 km 2 of the sea floor in north-central Long Island Sound off Branford, Connecticut. Shell bed provides shelter for juvenille skate.The mosaic and its interpretation serve many purposes, including: (1) defining the geological variability of the sea floor, which is one of the primary controls of benthic habitat diversity; (2) improving our understanding of the processes that control the distribution and transport of bottom sediments and the distribution of benthic habitats and associated infaunal community structures; and (3) providing a detailed framework for future research, monitoring, and management activities. The sidescan sonar mosaic also serves as a base map for subsequent sedimentological, geochemical, and biological observations, because precise information on environmental setting is important for selection of sampling sites and for appropriate interpretation of point measurements.

Connecticut↗

USGS2016

Fire effects on wildlife in Central Hardwoods and Appalachian regions

Fire is being prescribed and used increasingly to promote ecosystem restoration (e.g., oak woodlands and savannas) and to manage wildlife habitat in the Central Hardwoods and Appalachian regions, USA. However, questions persist as to how fire affects hardwood forest communities and associated wildlife, and how fire should be used to achieve management goals. We provide an up-to-date review of fire effects on various wildlife species and their habitat in the Central Hardwoods and Appalachians. Documented direct effects (i.e., mortality) on wildlife are rare. Indirect effects (i.e., changes in habitat quality) are influenced greatly by light availability, fire frequency, and fire intensity. Unless fire intensity is great enough to kill a portion of the overstory, burning in closed-canopy forests has provided little benefit for most wildlife species in the region because it doesn’t result in enough sunlight penetration to elicit understory response. Canopy reduction through silvicultural treatment has enabled managers to use fire more effectively. Fire intensity must be kept low in hardwoods to limit damage to many species of overstory trees. However, wounding or killing trees with fire benefits many wildlife species by allowing increased sunlight to stimulate understory response, snag and subsequent cavity creation, and additions of large coarse woody debris. In general, a fire-return interval of 2 yr to 7 yr benefits a wide variety of wildlife species by providing a diverse structure in the understory; increasing browse, forage, and soft mast; and creating snags and cavities. Historically, dormant-season fire was most prevalent in these regions, and it still is when most prescribed fire is implemented in hardwood systems as burn-days are relatively few in the growing season of May through August because of shading from leaf cover and high fuel moisture. Late growing-season burning increases the window for burning, and better control on woody composition is possible. Early growing-season fire may pose increased risk for some species, especially herpetofauna recently emerged from winter hibernacula (April) or forest songbirds that nest in the understory (May to June). However, negative population-level effects are unlikely unless the burned area is relatively large and early growing-season fire is used continually. We did not find evidence that fire is leading to population declines for any species, including Endangered Species Act (ESA)-listed species (e.g., Indiana bat [ Myotis sodalis Mill. Allen] or northern long-eared bat [ M. septentrionalis Trouess.]). Instead, data indicate that fire can enhance habitat for bats by increasing suitability of foraging and day-roost sites. Similarly, concern over burning and displacement of woodland salamanders (Plethodontidae), another taxa of heightened conservation concern, is alleviated when fire is prescribed along ecologically appropriate aspect and slope gradients and not forced into mesic, high site index environments where salamanders are most common. Because topography across the Central Hardwoods and Appalachians is diverse, we contend that applying fire on positions best suited for burning is an effective approach to increase regional landscape heterogeneity and biological diversity. Herein, we offer prescriptive concepts for burning for various wildlife species and guilds in the Central Hardwoods and Appalachians.

Appalachian region, Central Hardwoods region↗

USGS2019

Assessment of operational and structural factors influencing performance of fish collectors in forebays of high-head dams

Providing efficient downstream passage is critical for improving populations of migratory fishes in impounded river systems. High‐head dams, such as those used for water storage or flood‐risk management, pose unique passage challenges requiring unique solutions. Systems to collect fish in dam forebays (“forebay collectors”) for transport to downstream release locations have been used at some high‐head dams in the western United States since the 1950s. Collection efficiency of these facilities has ranged from nearly 0% to 100%, suggesting the need for a better understanding of factors affecting performance in these complex environments if they are to be designed and deployed at new sites. We compiled information on environmental, structural, and performance characteristics of seven existing forebay collectors to quantify factors affecting their performance based on a meta‐analysis using a data set containing 52 separate collection estimates. Covariates included species type (steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss, Chinook Salmon O. tshawytscha, Coho Salmon O. kisutch, and Sockeye Salmon O. nerka), collector inflow, collector entrance area, relative size of the dam forebay, and whether or not nets were used to enhance collection. We found that inflow, the use of lead nets, the size of the collector entrance area, the relative size of the dam forebay, and the interaction between collector entrance and forebay areas were significant predictors of collection performance. There was also evidence for differences between species. Chinook Salmon exhibited the lowest collection rates among the projects we examined, while steelhead collection rates were highest. These results provide guidance to design more efficient forebay collectors and improve the success of existing systems.

Oregon, Washington↗

USGS2018

Post-fledging movements and habitat associations of White-tailed Sea Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) in Central Asia

Behavior of young birds can have important consequences for population dynamics. We investigated the autumnal post-fledging movements of 3 White-tailed Sea Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) hatched in Kazakhstan. All 3 eagles traveled south, flying on average 25–108 km/d. Movement was nonrandom, with eagles generally traveling near mosaics of forest, open areas, and water, and rarely using areas with little vegetation. As the first study of movements of White-tailed Sea Eagles in arid Central Asia, this study provides insight into potential limiting factors and how these birds interact with their environment during long-distance movements.

Wilson Journal of Ornithology↗

USGS2014

Aftershock risks such as those demonstrated by the recent events in New Zealand and Japan

Recent earthquakes in New Zealand and Japan show that it is important to consider the spatial and temporal distribution of aftershocks following large magnitude events since the probability of high intensity ground motions from aftershocks, which are capable of causing significant societal impact, can be considerable. This is due to the fact that a mainshock will have many aftershocks, some of which may occur closer to populated areas and may be large enough to cause damage. When a large magnitude event strikes a region, the chance that aftershocks will cause damage can be significant as was observed after the 2011 Tohoku and 2010 Canterbury earthquakes (e.g., damage caused by M w 6.6 April 11, 2011 Fukushima-Hamadori earthquake following Tohoku earthquake or by M w 6.3 February 22, 2011 Christchurch earthquake following Canterbury earthquake). Aftershock events may further damage already damaged buildings, thereby further complicating assessments of risk to the built environment. In this paper, the issue of aftershock risk is addressed by summarizing current research regarding: (1) aftershock hazard, (2) structural fragility/vulnerability before and after the mainshock, and (3) change in risk due to aftershocks.

Conference Paper↗

USGS2014

The future of nearshore processes research

The nearshore is the transition region between land and the continental shelf including (from onshore to offshore) coastal plains, wetlands, estuaries, coastal cliffs, dunes, beaches, surf zones (regions of wave breaking), and the inner shelf (Figure ES-1). Nearshore regions are vital to the national economy, security, commerce, and recreation. The nearshore is dynamically evolving, is often densely populated, and is under increasing threat from sea level rise, long-term erosion, extreme storms, and anthropogenic influences. Worldwide, almost one billion people live at elevations within 10 m of present sea level. Long-term erosion threatens communities, infrastructure, ecosystems, and habitat. Extreme storms can cause billions of dollars of damage. Degraded water quality impacts ecosystem and human health. Nearshore processes, the complex interactions between water, sediment, biota, and humans, must be understood and predicted to manage this often highly developed yet vulnerable nearshore environment. Over the past three decades, the understanding of nearshore processes has improved. However, societal needs are growing with increased coastal urbanization and threats of future climate change, and significant scientific challenges remain. To address these challenges, members of academia, industry, and federal agencies (USGS, USACE, NPS, NOAA, FEMA, ONR) met at the “The Past and Future of Nearshore Processes Research: Reflections on the Sallenger Years and a New Vision for the Future” workshop to develop a nearshore processes research vision where societal needs and science challenges intersect. The resulting vision is comprised of three broad research themes: Long-term coastal evolution due to natural and anthropogenic processes: As global climate change alters the rates of sea level rise and potentially storm patterns and coastal urbanization increases over the coming decades, an understanding of coastal evolution is critical. Improved knowledge of long-term morphological, ecological, and societal processes and their interactions will result in an improved ability to simulate coastal change. This will enable proactive solutions for resilient coasts and better guidance for reducing coastal vulnerability. Extreme Events: Flooding, erosion, and the subsequent recovery: Hurricane Sandy caused flooding and erosion along hundreds of miles of shoreline, flooded New York City, and impacted communities and infrastructure. Overall U.S. coastal extreme event related economic losses have increased substantially. Furthermore, climate change may cause an increase in coastal extreme events and rising sea levels could increase the occurrence of extreme events. Addressing this research theme will result in an improved understanding of the physical processes during extreme events, leading to improved models of flooding, erosion, and recovery. The resulting societal benefit will be more resilient coastal communities. The physical, biological and chemical processes impacting human and ecosystem health: Nearshore regions are used for recreation, tourism, and human habitation, and provide habitat and valuable ecosystem services. These areas must be sustained for future generations, however overall coastal water quality is declining due to microbial pathogens, fertilizers, pesticides, and heavy metal contamination, threatening ecosystem and human health. To ensure sustainable nearshore regions, predictive real-time water- and sediment-based based pollutant modeling capabilities must be developed, which requires expanding our knowledge of the physics, chemistry, and biology of the nearshore. The resulting societal benefits will include better beach safety, healthier ecosystems, and improved mitigation and regulatory policies. The scientists and engineers of the U.S. nearshore community are poised to make significant progress on these research themes, which have significant societal impact. The U.S. nearshore community, including academic, government, and industry colleagues, recommends multi-agency investment into a coordinated development of observational and modeling research infrastructure to address these themes, as discussed in the whitepaper. The observational infrastructure should include development of new sensors and methods, focused observational programs, and expanded nearshore observing systems. The modeling infrastructure should include improved process representation, better model coupling, incorporation of data assimilation techniques, and testing of real-time models. The observations will provide test beds to compare and improve models.

Report↗

USGS2012

Spatial aspects of building and population exposure data and their implications for global earthquake exposure modeling

This paper discusses spatial aspects of the global exposure dataset and mapping needs for earthquake risk assessment. We discuss this in the context of development of a Global Exposure Database for the Global Earthquake Model (GED4GEM), which requires compilation of a multi-scale inventory of assets at risk, for example, buildings, populations, and economic exposure. After defining the relevant spatial and geographic scales of interest, different procedures are proposed to disaggregate coarse-resolution data, to map them, and if necessary to infer missing data by using proxies. We discuss the advantages and limitations of these methodologies and detail the potentials of utilizing remote-sensing data. The latter is used especially to homogenize an existing coarser dataset and, where possible, replace it with detailed information extracted from remote sensing using the built-up indicators for different environments. Present research shows that the spatial aspects of earthquake risk computation are tightly connected with the availability of datasets of the resolution necessary for producing sufficiently detailed exposure. The global exposure database designed by the GED4GEM project is able to manage datasets and queries of multiple spatial scales.

Natural Hazards↗

USGS2018

Thiamine deficiency in fishes: Causes, consequences, and potential solutions

Thiamine deficiency complex (TDC) is a disorder resulting from the inability to acquire or retain thiamine (vitamin B 1 ) and has been documented in organisms in aquatic ecosystems ranging from the Baltic Sea to the Laurentian Great Lakes. The biological mechanisms leading to TDC emergence may vary among systems, but in fishes, one common outcome is high mortality among early life stages. Here, we review the causes and consequences of thiamine deficiency in fishes and identify potential solutions. First, we examine the biochemical and physiological roles of thiamine in vertebrates and find that thiamine deficiency consistently results in impaired neurological function across diverse taxa. Next, we review natural producers of thiamine, which include bacteria, fungi, and plants, and suggest that thiamine is not currently limiting for most animal species inhabiting natural aquatic environments. A survey of historic occurrences of thiamine deficiency identifies consumption of a thiamine-degrading enzyme, thiaminase, as the primary explanation for low levels of thiamine in individuals and subsequent onset of TDC. Lastly, we review conservation and management strategies for TDC mitigation ranging from evolutionary rescue to managing for a diverse forage base. As recent evidence suggests occurrences of thiamine deficiency may be increasing in frequency, increased awareness and a better mechanistic understanding of the underlying causes associated with thiamine deficiency may help prevent further population declines.

Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries↗

USGS2026

Mixed support for the temperature-size rule in wild freshwater fishes

The temperature-size rule states that species living in warmer temperatures will grow faster and mature earlier at smaller sizes. While several studies have documented patterns in average body size consistent with the temperature-size rule in wild populations, a comprehensive test is lacking. Here, we use age and length data of 1.4 million fish across 7 species from 2704 lakes to quantify temperature-related variation in growth across ontogeny. Our results show that no species fully conforms to the temperature-size rule; despite patterns of juvenile growth rate and age at maturity typically aligning with the temperature-size rule, these changes seldom translate to reduced size at maturity or maximum size. We also found evidence that faster life histories in warmer environments are associated with reduced lifespans. A deeper understanding of how temperature shapes growth in natural systems is needed to accurately predict the effects of global warming on wildlife.

Illinois, Indiana, Iowa,Michigan, Minnesota, South↗