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At least 109 records · Page 6Linked to original sources
USGS2011

Proceedings of the 2011 Elwha River Science Symposium

After years of anticipation, volumes of Environmental Impact Statements, multiple mitigation projects, and the multidisciplinary collection of predam removal data, the deconstruction phase of the Elwha River restoration officially began on September 17th, 2011. With their simultaneous decommissioning, the removal of the 64 m tall Glines Canyon Dam and the 33 m tall Elwha Dam represents one of the largest such projects of its kind in North America. It’s also an excellent opportunity to study large-scale ecosystem restoration, as the majority of the reconnected habitat that will become available to recolonizing salmon occurs in the protected wilderness areas of Olympic National Park. As part of a week-long series of ‘Celebrate Elwha’ events, which culminated with a moving ceremony commemorating the official launch of dam removal, I was proud to work with a number of dedicated people, listed below, to organize the two day 2011 Elwha River Science Symposium. Many of the scientists working on the Elwha project have regularly met, since around 2004, for annual meetings. Loosely organized under the auspices of the Elwha Research and Elwha Nearshore consortia, the annual meetings have been informative for many reasons, including the sharing of study plans, field schedules, and preliminary results. It has been a great way for groups of physical scientists and groups of biologists to learn about the questions of interest to each group and to explore areas of overlap. In some cases, these meetings have spawned new collaborations, synergies, and research directions. In planning for the 2011 Elwha River Science Symposium, we sought to retain this espirit de corps, but realized that the start of dam removal heralded an important new phase of the project and called for an event that celebrated this special occasion.

Washington↗
USGS1967

Results of the second phase of the drought-disaster test-drilling program near Morristown, N.J.

The continued drought in northeastern New Jersey through the summer of 1966 with its attendant water-supply problems resulted in an extension of the drought-disaster test-drilling program originally requested by the Office of Emergency Planning on August 30, 1965. Authorization to continue test drilling was fiven by the Office of Emergency Planning on September 26, 1966, with the stipulation that all field work be complete by January 31, 1977. Contractural costs were paid by the Office of Emergency Planning, whereas personnel costs were shared by the U.S. Geological Survey and the New Jersey Department of Conservation and Economic Development, Division of Water Policy and Supply. The work undertaken in 1965 by the Geological Survey was "...to preform the necessary drilling and testing of wells to identify the extent and nature of a reserve ground-water source in the vicinity of the Passaic River near the northern New Jersey metropolitan area." Results of this first phase were made available in the fall of 1966 in Water Resources Circular 16 of the New Jersey Department of Conservation and Economic Development. Three of the five areas tested (figure 1)--two in Parsippany-Troy Hills Township (areas 2 and 4) and one in East Hanover Township (area 1), Morris County--proved capable of providing an aggregate sustained yield of 7.5 million gallons daily (mgd) from wells constructed in sand and gravel deposits. Because significant supplies of ground water for emergency use were located in the first phase of the exploratory test-drilling program, it was though desirable to extend the originally planned studies so as to obtain maximum practicable information on emergency supplies. During this second phase of the investigation, drilling was conducted in 16 sites in Chatham, Madison, and Florham Park Boroughs and in Hanover and East Hanover Townships, Morris County. (See figure 2.) The drilling in Hanover and East Hanover Townships, and part of the drilling done in Florham Park was to explore the availability of large undeveloped ground-water supplies. Drilling in Chatham, Madison, and Florham Park Boroughs was done primarily to determine the extent and continuity of buried valley-fill aquifers, so that a full evaluation of the effects of pumpage from other areas on these already heavily pumped areas could be made. In addition, it was anticipated that the drilling could help in defining the feasibility of artificial recharge of the heavily pumped areas and in the determination of the prospective method of recharge and points of emplacement. Arrangements for easements with landowners, preparation of specifications for well drilling and seismic work, and supervision of well drilling and seismic contracts were all performed by the New Jersey District, Water Resources Division of the Geological Survey. Prior to the test drilling, seismic exploration under contract with Alpine Geophysical Associates of Norwood, N. J. was conducted at five locations in the Chatham-Madison-Florham Park area and at one place in Parsippany-Troy Hills Township. The seismic work was done to determine the most favorable location for a test well at several potential test-well sites and to help in the interpretation of subsurface geology between test sites. Contracts for the drilling of the test holes were awarded during November and drilling commences on November 30. Kaye Well drilling, Inc. of Jackson, N. J. was the recipient of a contract for eight of the test holes, and a second contract was awarded to Rinbrand Well Drilling Co., Inc. of Glen Rock, N. J.--also for eight test holes. Acknowledgment is due to the many public officials of Chatham, Madison, Florham Park, Morristown, and East Hanover Township as well as officials of the Braidburn Corporation and Esso Research and Engineering Co., who cooperated by making their lands available for exploration.

New Jersey↗
USGS1990

Reference manual for generation and analysis of Habitat Time Series: version II

The selection of an instream flow requirement for water resource management often requires the review of how the physical habitat changes through time. This review is referred to as 'Time Series Analysis." The Tune Series Library (fSLIB) is a group of programs to enter, transform, analyze, and display time series data for use in stream habitat assessment. A time series may be defined as a sequence of data recorded or calculated over time. Examples might be historical monthly flow, predicted monthly weighted usable area, daily electrical power generation, annual irrigation diversion, and so forth. The time series can be analyzed, both descriptively and analytically, to understand the importance of the variation in the events over time. This is especially useful in the development of instream flow needs based on habitat availability. The TSLIB group of programs assumes that you have an adequate study plan to guide you in your analysis. You need to already have knowledge about such things as time period and time step, species and life stages to consider, and appropriate comparisons or statistics to be produced and displayed or tabulated. Knowing your destination, you must first evaluate whether TSLIB can get you there. Remember, data are not answers . This publication is a reference manual to TSLIB and is intended to be a guide to the process of using the various programs in TSLIB. This manual is essentially limited to the hands-on use of the various programs. a TSLIB use interface program (called RTSM) has been developed to provide an integrated working environment where the use has a brief on-line description of each TSLIB program with the capability to run the TSLIB program while in the user interface. For information on the RTSM program, refer to Appendix F. Before applying the computer models described herein, it is recommended that the user enroll in the short course "Problem Solving with the Instream Flow Incremental Methodology (IFIM)." This course is offered by the Aquatic Systems Branch of the National Ecology Research Center. For more information about the TSLIB software, refer to the Memorandum of Understanding. Chapter 1 provides a brief introduction to the Instream Flow Incremental Methodology and TSLIB. Other chapters in this manual provide information on the different aspects of using the models. The information contained in the other chapters includes (2) acquisition, entry, manipulation, and listing of streamflow data; (3) entry, manipulation, and listing of the habitat-versus-streamflow function; (4) transferring streamflow data; (5) water resources systems analysis; (6) generation and analysis of daily streamflow and habitat values; (7) generation of the time series of monthly habitats; (8) manipulation, analysis, and display of month time series data; and (9) generation, analysis, and display of annual time series data. Each section includes documentation for the programs therein with at least one page of information for each program, including a program description, instructions for running the program, and sample output. The Appendixes contain the following: (A) sample file formats; (B) descriptions of default filenames; (C) alphabetical summary of batch-procedure files; (D) installing and running TSLIB on a microcomputer; (E) running TSLIB on a CDC Cyber computer; (F) using the TSLIB user interface program (RTSM); and (G) running WATSTORE on the USGS Amdahl mainframe computer. The number for this version of TSLIB--Version II-- is somewhat arbitrary, as the TSLIB programs were collected into a library some time ago; but operators tended to use and manage them as individual programs. Therefore, we will consider the group of programs from the past that were only on the CDC Cyber computer as Version 0; the programs from the past that were on both the Cyber and the IBM-compatible microcomputer as Version I; and the programs contained in this reference manual as Version II.

Report↗
USGS1994

Relations between habitat variability and population dynamics of bass in the Huron River, Michigan

One of the assumption of the Instream Flow Incremental Methodology (IFIM) is that the dynamics of fish populations are directly or indirectly related to habitat availability. Because this assumption has not been successfully tested in coolwater streams, questions arise regarding the validity of the methodology in such streams. The purpose of our study was to determine whether relations existed between habitat availability and population dynamics of smallmouth bass ( Micropterus dolomieu ) and rock bass ( Ambloplites rupestris ) in a 16-km reach of the Huron River in southeastern Michigan. Both species exhibited strong to moderate carryover of year classes from age 0 through age 2, indicating that adult populations were related to factors affecting recruitment. Year-class strength and subsequent numbers of yearling bass were related to the availability of young-of-year habitat during the first growing season for a cohort. Number of age-0, age-1, and adult smallmouth bass were related to the average length at age 0 for the cohort. Length at age 0 was associated with young-of-year habitat and thermal regime during the first growing season. Rock bass populations exhibited similar associations among age classes and habitat variables. Compared to smallmouth bass, the number of age-2 rock bass was associated more closely with their length at age 0 than with year-class strength. Length at age 0 and year-class strength of rock bass were associated with the same habitat variables as those related to age-0 smallmouth bass. We hypothesize that an energetic mechanism linked thermal regime to length at age 0 and that increased growth resulted in higher survival rates from age 0 to age 1. We also postulate that young-of-year habitat provided protection from predators, higher production of food resources, and increased foraging efficiency. We conclude that the IFIM is a valid methodology for instream flow investigations of coolwater streams. The results for our study support the contention that the dynamics of bass populations are directly or indirectly related to habitat availability in coolwater streams. Our study also revealed several implications related to the operational application of the IFIM in coolwater streams: 1. Greater emphasis should be placed on the alleviation of habitat impacts to early life history phases of bass. 2. Effects of the thermal regime are important in some coolwater streams even if temperatures remain within nonlethal limits. Degree-day analyses should be routinely included in study plans for applications of the IFIM in coolwater streams. 3. The smallest amount of habitat occurring within or across years is not necessarily the most significant event affecting population dynamics. The timing of extreme events can be as important as their magnitude. 4. Population-related habitat limitations were associated with high flows more often than with low flows (although both occurred). Negotiations that focus only on minimum flows may preclude viable water management options and ignore significant biological events. This finding is particularly relevant to negotiations involving hydrospeaking operations. 5. IFIM users are advised to consider the use of binary criteria in place of conventional suitability index curves in microhabitat simulations. Criteria defining the optimal ranges of variables are preferable to broader rangers, and criteria that simply define suitable conditions should be avoided entirely.

Michigan↗
USGS1998

Results from the hydrodynamic element of the 1994 entrapment zone study in Suisun Bay

The entrapment zo as long been considered an important region of the San Francisco estuary. It has been the subject of several previous studies, and its location has been suggested as an index of condition of the estuarine ecosystem.A close correlate of this location, X2 1, is now used as a management objective on the basis that X2 is correlated with the abundance or survival of several estuarine-dependent species. X2 is a crude tool to use for this purpose, but it can be refined only through improved understanding of the various mechanisms underlying these correlations. These mechanisms probably differ among species, but for species resident in and near the entrapment zone, the correlation with X2 may be due to variations in intenSity oftrapping mechanisms with pOSition of the entrapment zone. Therefore, it is worthwhile to investigate these trapping mechanisms, the nature of the entrapment zone as habitat, and the responses of the entrapment zone to changes in X2 or outflow from the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Studies ofthe entrapment zone ofthe San Francisco estuary have been conducted in springs of 1994, 1995, and 1996. These studies have been funded by the Interagency Ecological Program and conducted by scientists from IEP member agencies, the Romberg Tiburon Center for Environmental Studies, Bodega Marine Laboratory, and the University of California at Santa Cruz. This report presents results from 1994, a low-flow year. Subsequent reports will describe results from 1995 and 1996 and highlight differences among years. This report is organized in chapters that comprise more-or-Iess independent papers, with an introductory chapter for the entire study. This Executive Summary presents highlights of the overall study plan and summarizes the major findings.

California↗
USGS2012

Ecosystem restoration: Chapter 4

The Department of the Interior extensively supports―through its mission, policy, programs, and funding― the study, planning, implementation, and monitoring of ecosystem restoration. This commitment is reflected in the Department's FY2011-2016 Strategic Plan.

Report↗
USGS2003

Guidelines for long-term monitoring protocols

Monitoring protocols are detailed study plans that explain how data are to be collected, managed, analyzed, and reported, and are a key component of quality assurance for natural resource monitoring programs. Protocols are necessary to ensure that changes detected by monitoring actually are occurring in nature and not simply a result of measurements taken by different people or in slightly different ways. We developed and present here guidelines for the recommended content and format of monitoring protocols. The National Park Service and United States Geological Survey have adopted these guidelines to assist scientists developing protocols for more than 270 national park units.

Wildlife Society Bulletin↗
USGS2022

Real-time telemetry and multi-state modeling

This project will result in real-time data and other invasive carp movement information to inform realtime management decisions and refine the SEICarP model. FY 2022 funding will produce final transition probability estimates from the newly-developed Bayesian multi-state model, continue the maintenance of real-time telemetry to inform contingency actions, and produce a study plan to refine fishing mortality estimates using telemetry data.

Illinois↗
USGS2002

Managing for biodiversity in young Douglas-fir forests of western Oregon

This project addressed potential contributions of forest thinning to enhancing biodiversity and accelerating development of old-growth characteristics in relatively young Douglas-fir forests typical of those managed according to the Northwest Forest Plan. Studies focused primarily on 32 paired unthinned and thinned stands and 20 associated old-growth stands in the Coast Range and Cascade mountains of western Oregon. Data were collected on vascular plants in most stands surveyed, and on epiphytic lichens and bryophytes, moths, and birds in subsets of these stands. Studies assessed whether or not (1) communities of organisms differed among stand types, (2) communities in thinned stands were more similar to those in old-growth stands than were those in unthinned stands, (3) species diversity or abundance was related to specific stand features, and (4) these specific stand features were shared across taxa. Results indicated that communities differed among stand types, and that communities in thinned stands were not necessarily more similar to old-growth communities than were those in unthinned stands. Variation in stand conditions appeared to enhance biodiversity, and hardwood trees and shrubs were important for many species. These and other results form the basis for general thinning guidelines, which are presented here, and will guide future research.

Biological Science Report↗
USGS1998

Stream habitat analysis using the instream flow incremental methodology

This document describes the Instream Flow Methodology in its entirety. This also is to serve as a comprehensive introductory textbook on IFIM for training courses as it contains the most complete and comprehensive description of IFIM in existence today. This should also serve as an official guide to IFIM in publication to counteract the misconceptions about the methodology that have pervaded the professional literature since the mid-1980's as this describes IFIM as it is envisioned by its developers. The document is aimed at the decisionmakers of management and allocation of natural resources in providing them an overview; and to those who design and implement studies to inform the decisionmakers. There should be enough background on model concepts, data requirements, calibration techniques, and quality assurance to help the technical user design and implement a cost-effective application of IFIM that will provide policy-relevant information. Some of the chapters deal with basic organization of IFIM, procedural sequence of applying IFIM starting with problem identification, study planning and implementation, and problem resolution.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1982

Plan for hydrologic study of an area to be surface mined for coal in northwestern Colorado

A data-collection network was established in 1980 in northwestern Colorado in a drainage basin which may be surface mined for coal. This report describes the work plan set up to study the premining hydrology of this area near Steamboat Springs, Routt County, Colorado. The bedrock, alluvial, and surface-water systems as well as the climatic inputs to these systems, are monitored for this study.

Open-File Report↗
USGS2022

Species distributions and the recognition of risk in restoration planning: A case study of salmonid fishes

One of the risks faced by habitat restoration practitioners is whether habitats included in restoration planning will be used by the target species or, conversely, whether habitats excluded from restoration planning would have benefited the target species. With the goal of providing a quantitative decision-making approach that represented varying levels of risk tolerance, we used multiple probability decision thresholds (PDT) to predict the range of occurrence for three anadromous fishes ( Oncorhynchus spp.) in a watershed in southwestern Washington, USA. For each species, we compared the predicted range of occurrence to the distribution used for restoration planning and quantified the amount of habitat blocked by anthropogenic barriers. Coho salmon ( O. kisutch ) had the broadest predicted range of occurrence (3061.6–6357.9 km; 0.75–0.25 PDT), followed by steelhead trout ( O. mykiss ; 1828.8–2836.8 km) and chum salmon ( O. keta ; 1373.9–1629.1 km). For each species, the predicted range of occurrence was similar or greater than the distribution used for restoration planning, suggesting that the current plan may exclude habitats that would benefit each species. Coho salmon had the greatest percentage of habitat blocked by anthropogenic barriers, followed by steelhead trout and chum salmon, respectively. Modeling species distributions at multiple risk-tolerance scenarios acknowledges uncertainty in restoration planning and allows practitioners to weigh the ecological benefits and budgetary constraints when considering locations for restoration. To effectively communicate restoration science to support practitioners in decision-making, we developed an R Shiny application online user interface available at: https://shiny.wdfw-fish.us/ChehalisRiverBasinSalmonidRangeOfOccurence/ .

Washington↗
USGS1985

Proposed work plan for the study of hydrologic effects of ground-water development in the Wet Mountain Valley, Colorado

Large-scale development of groundwater resources in the Wet Mountain Valley, Colorado, could adversely affect other water rights in the valley or in the Arkansas River Basin. Such infringement on senior water rights could severely limit development of additional water supplies in the valley. A work plan is presented for a study that is intended to define the hydrologic system in the valley better, and to determine the extent that the quantity and chemical quality of both surface and groundwater in the valley might be affected by proposed development. (USGS)

Open-File Report↗
USGS2006

A system to evaluate the scientific quality of biological and restoration objectives using National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plans as a case study

It is widely accepted that plans for restoration projects should contain specific, measurable, and science-based objectives to guide restoration efforts. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) is in the process of developing Comprehensive Conservation Plans (CCPs) for more than 500 units in the National Wildlife Refuge System (NWRS). These plans contain objectives for biological and ecosystem restoration efforts on the refuges. Based on USFWS policy, a system was developed to evaluate the scientific quality of such objectives based on three critical factors: (1) Is the objective specific, measurable, achievable, results-oriented, and time-fixed? (2) What is the extent of the rationale that explains the assumptions, logic, and reasoning for the objective? (3) How well was available science used in the development of the objective? The evaluation system scores each factor on a scale of 1 (poor) to 4 (excellent) according to detailed criteria. The biological and restoration objectives from CCPs published as of September 2004 (60 total) were evaluated. The overall average score for all biological and restoration objectives was 1.73. Average scores for each factor were: Factor 1-1.97; Factor 2-1.86; Factor 3-1.38. The overall scores increased from 1997 to 2004. Future restoration efforts may benefit by using this evaluation system during the process of plan development, to ensure that biological and restoration objectives are of the highest scientific quality possible prior to the implementation of restoration plans, and to allow for improved monitoring and adaptive management.

Journal for Nature Conservation↗
USGS2013

Knowledge and understanding of dissolved solids in the Rio Grande–San Acacia, New Mexico, to Fort Quitman, Texas, and plan for future studies and monitoring

Availability of water in the Rio Grande Basin has long been a primary concern for water-resource managers. The transport and delivery of water in the basin have been engineered by using reservoirs, irrigation canals and drains, and transmountain-water diversions to meet the agricultural, residential, and industrial demand. In contrast, despite the widespread recognition of critical water-quality problems, there have been minimal management efforts to improve water quality in the Rio Grande. Of greatest concern is salinization (concentration of dissolved solids approaching 1,000 mg/L), a water-quality problem that has been recognized and researched for more than 100 years because of the potential to limit both agricultural and municipal use. To address the issue of salinization, water-resource managers need to have a clear conceptual understanding of the sources of salinity and the factors that control storage and transport, identify critical knowledge gaps in this conceptual understanding, and develop a research plan to address these gaps and develop a salinity management program. In 2009, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), New Mexico Interstate Stream Commission (NMISC), and New Mexico Environment Department (NMED) initiated a project to summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the transport of dissolved solids in the Rio Grande between San Acacia, New Mexico, and Fort Quitman, Texas. The primary objective is to provide hydrologic information pertaining to the spatial and temporal variability present in the concentrations and loads of dissolved solids in the Rio Grande, the source-specific budget for the mass of dissolved solids transported along the Rio Grande, and the locations at which dissolved solids enter the Rio Grande. Dissolved-solids concentration data provide a good indicator of the general quality of surface water and provide information on the factors governing salinization within the Rio Grande study area. The pattern in dissolved-solids concentrations along the Rio Grande is one of increasing concentration with increasing distance downstream from Elephant Butte and Caballo Reservoirs. The concentration of dissolved solids in the Rio Grande doubles (approximately 500 to 1,000 mg/L) from below Elephant Butte Reservoir to El Paso and increases by more than a factor of 5 (approximately 500 to 3,200 mg/L) from below Elephant Butte Reservoir to Fort Quitman. Marked increases in the concentration of dissolved solids commonly coincide with contributions from agricultural drains, wastewater-treatment plants, regional groundwater, and upward-flowing saline groundwater. The greatest factor, from the surface-water system, in controlling dissolved solids in the Rio Grande is the amount of water that is being transported or stored. Annual variation in streamflow is influenced primarily by climate (precipitation and evaporation) and management of Elephant Butte and Caballo Reservoirs (water storage and release cycles). Seasonal variation in streamflow within the Rio Grande study area is generally categorized generally as irrigation (March–September) and nonirrigation (October–February) seasons; with streamflow in the Rio Grande is highest during the irrigation season and lowest during the nonirrigation season. Dissolved-solids loads during the irrigation season decrease between Leasburg and Fort Quitman primarily because of irrigation diversions and losses to the underlying alluvial aquifer. Conversely, dissolved-solids loads during the nonirrigation season increase between Caballo Dam and Fort Quitman primarily because of the inflow of dissolved solids from agricultural drains, wastewater-treatment plants, and groundwater with elevated concentrations of dissolved solids. Many studies have mass-balance budgets that account for the mass of dissolved solids transported along the Rio Grande. Results from mass-balance budgets developed for dissolved solids indicated that (1) the inflow of saline groundwater, inflow of regional groundwater, and chemical reactions between mineral phases are the primary sources controlling dissolved solids in the Rio Grande, and (2) groundwater pumping and mineral precipitation are causing a net storage of dissolved solids in the Leasburg to El Paso and El Paso to Fort Quitman reaches of the Rio Grande. Looking forward, multiple water-resource managers from State and local agencies in New Mexico and Texas and Federal agencies formed the Rio Grande Salinity Management Coalition with the goal to reduce the amount of dissolved solids that are transported and stored in the Rio Grande study area. The recommendations for additional monitoring to assist the coalition are as follows: -Monitoring: Couple water-quality and streamflow monitoring in the Rio Grande and agricultural drains; perform groundwater-seepage investigations in the Rio Grande and major agricultural drains; nonitor groundwater water-quality conditions in the Mesilla and Hueco Basins. -Focused Hydrogeology Studies at Inflow Sources: Map dissolved-solids concentrations in the Rio Grande and underlying alluvial aquifer; perform hydrogeologic characterization of subsurface areas containing unusually high concentrations of dissolved solids. -Modeling of Dissolved Solids: Develop models to simulate the transport and storage of dissolved solids in both surface-water and groundwater systems.

New Mexico;Texas↗
USGS2012

Developing a quality assurance plan for telemetry studies: A necessary management tool for an effective study

Telemetry has been used to answer various questions associated with research, management, and monitoring programs and to monitor animal behavior and population dynamics throughout the world. Many telemetry projects have been developed to study the passage, behavior, and survival of migrating adult and juvenile salmonids at hydroelectric projects on the mainstem Columbia and Snake rivers (Skalski et al. 2001a, 2001b; Skalski et al. 2002; Keefer et al. 2004; Goniea et al. 2006; Plumb et al. 2006). Telemetry based field evaluations of the survival of salmon through hydroelectric projects are costly because of the technology (tags, telemetry systems, infrastructure, etc.) and personnel required to conduct the evaluations. Given the cost of implementing these projects, and the financial and conservation implications of the decisions made from the research results (e.g., forgone electricity production and conservation of threatened and endangered animals), ensuring quality data are collected by documenting all procedures, training, data checks, and that sound protocols and quality assurance and control procedures are in place is paramount. Telemetry studies can pose unique data collection, processing, and analysis challenges. For instance, inferences about entire populations of animals are made from study animals that are captured, held, and tagged at disparate locations. Consequently great care must be taken to ensure that any potential biases that could arise from field procedures must be minimized (Peven et al. 2005). Interrogations of released study animals are remotely conducted by telemetry systems throughout the study area. The continuous recording of telemetry systems can result in large numbers of detections over a short time frame and the potential for false positive detections from records that are weak or erroneous. Thus, there is the potential to generate large data sets (many thousands of lines) that require significant postprocessing. Data reduction can be done using software or programming code within a software package or manually to discern noise from valid data and pull out the pertinent information for analysis. In either case, consistent well-documented procedures need to be in place to ensure quality results and allow for repeatability of study methods.

Book chapter↗