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USGS1980

Development of sea lamprey ( Petromyzon marinus ) larvicides

Larvicides are used to control sea lamprey ( Petromyzon marinus ) in the Great Lakes. These larvicides are useful because they are more toxic to sea lamprey than fish species found in the same habitat. The lampricides come from two classes of chemical compounds: (1) halonitrophenols, and (2) halonitrosalicylanilides. Selectivity of the larvicides appears to be based on the differences in the ability of sea lamprey larvae and fishes to detoxify and/or excrete the chemicals. Glucuronide conjugation is an important mechanism for detoxification of these larvicides by fish, and selectivity of larvicides may be due to differences in glucuronyl transferase activity between lamprey and fishes. If more detailed information were available on uptake, metabolism, excretion, and the biochemistry and physiology of lamprey as compared to fishes, it might be possible to design chemicals that would be more selective than those now in use.

Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences↗

USGS2021

Direct and size-mediated effects of temperature and ration-dependent growth rates on energy reserves in juvenile anadromous alewives (Alosa pseudoharengus)

Growth rate and energy reserves are important determinants of fitness and are governed by endogenous and exogenous factors. Thus, examining the influence of individual and multiple stressors on growth and energy reserves can help estimate population health under current and future conditions. In young anadromous fishes, freshwater habitat quality determines physiological state and fitness of juveniles emigrating to marine habitats. We tested how temperature and food availability affect survival, growth, and energy reserves in juvenile anadromous alewives ( Alosa pseudoharengus ), a forage fish distributed along the eastern North American continent. Field-collected juvenile anadromous A. pseudoharengus were exposed for 21 days to one of two temperatures (21°C and 25°C) and one of two levels of food rations (1% or 2% tank biomass daily) and compared for differences in final size, fat mass-at-length, lean mass-at-length, and energy density. Increased temperature and reduced ration both led to lower growth rates and the effect of reduced ration was greater at higher temperature. Fat mass-at-length decreased with dry mass and energy density increased with total length, suggesting size-based endogenous influences on energy reserves. Lower ration also directly decreased fat mass-at-length, lean mass-at-length and energy density. Given the fitness implications of size and energy reserves, temperature and food availability should be considered important indicators of nursery habitat quality and incorporated in A. pseudoharengus life history models to improve forecasting of population health under climate change.

Journal of Fish Biology↗

USGS2013

Comparing effects of transmitters within and among populations: application to swimming performance of juvenile Chinook salmon

The sensitivity of fish to a transmitter depends on factors such as environmental conditions, fish morphology, life stage, rearing history, and tag design. However, synthesizing general trends across studies is difficult because each study focuses on a particular performance measure, species, life stage, and transmitter model. These differences motivated us to develop simple metrics that allow effects of transmitters to be compared among different species, populations, or studies. First, we describe how multiple regression analysis can be used to quantify the effect of tag burden (transmitter mass relative to fish mass) on measures of physiological performance. Next, we illustrate how the slope and intercept parameters can be used to calculate two summary statistics: θ, which estimates the tag burden threshold above which the performance of tagged fish begins to decline relative to untagged fish; and k, which measures the percentage change in performance per percentage point increase in tag burden. When θ = 0, k provides a single measure of the tag's effect that can be compared among species, populations, or studies. We apply this analysis to two different experiments that measure the critical swimming speed (U crit) of tagged juvenile Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha. In both experiments, U crit declined as tag burden increased, but we found no significant threshold in swimming performance. Estimates of θ ranged from −0.6% to 2.1% among six unique treatment groups, indicating that swimming performance began to decline at a relatively low tag burden. Estimates of k revealed that U crit of tagged fish declined by −2.68% to −4.86% for each 1% increase in tag burden. Both θ and k varied with the tag's antenna configuration, tag implantation method, and posttagging recovery time. Our analytical approach can be used to gain insights across populations to better understand factors affecting the ability of fish to carry a transmitter.

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society↗

USGS1992

Effects of chronic exposure to soft, acidic water on gill development and chloride cell numbers in embryo-larval brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis

Recruitment failure is considered to be a major factor contributing to the decline of fish populations in soft, acidic waters; direct mortality of embryo-larval fishes has been postulated as a major cause of the decline. Little is understood of the physiological consequences to embryo-larval fishes of prolonged exposure to soft, acidic waters; however, dysfunction of respiratory and ionoregulatory processes is suspected. In order to evaluate the effects of acid exposure on the respiratory and ionoregulatory systems of developing brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis, differences in gill morphology and numbers of chloride cells were compared between groups cf developing embryo-larval fish continuously exposed to moderately hard well water (130.0 mg.l -1 as CaCO 3 , pH 7.94) or to reconstituted soft, acidic water (4.4 mg.l -1 as CaCO 3 , pH 5.25) designed to mimic acidic waters of northern Wisconsin acidified lakes. Exposures were maintained for up to 48 days (82 days after fertilization) during critical periods of growth and differentiation of branchial structures. The second right gill arch of each fish was examined for changes in the development of filaments and lamellae and for differences in numbers of chloride cells. Gills of fish that developed in soft, acidic water contained greater numbers of normal and degenerating chloride cells, exhibited hyperplasia of primary epithelium and multiple fusions of adjacent filaments and lamellar epithelium than the gills of control fish. Filament and lamellar lengths and numbers of lamellae per filament were significantly less ( P < 0.05) in fish that developed in soft, acidic water than in fish exposed to well water.

Wisconsin↗

USGS2022

Pathways of productivity and influences on top consumers in forested streams

Forested stream ecosystems involve complex physical and biotic pathways that can influence fish in numerous ways. Consequently, the responses of fish communities to disturbance can be difficult to understand. In this study, we employed a food web model that links biotic (e.g., physiology, predator–prey interactions) and abiotic (e.g., temperature, sunlight) attributes to address fish responses to changes in stream-riparian ecosystems. We modeled responses to food web dynamics in four streams, using scenarios that included responses to riparian disturbance, climate change, and shifts in top consumers. The two consumers we focused on were coastal cutthroat trout ( Oncorhynchus clarkii clarkii ) and sculpin ( Cottus spp., collectively treated as a functional group) . We found the responses to environmental changes varied by fish species and among streams, and that responses were not independent due to exploitative interspecific competition. Simulations based on long-term data indicated that coastal cutthroat trout were responsive to changes in allochthonous resources including terrestrial detritus and invertebrates, whereas sculpin were more responsive to changes to autochthonous resources that included, periphyton and aquatic invertebrates. These results may be, in part, a consequence of species-specific foraging behavior. Trout have a higher propensity to drift feed and therefore receive a substantial subsidy from terrestrial invertebrates, whereas sculpin feed mostly on aquatic insects on the streambed. Simulations of changes in summer temperature and stream discharge suggest decreased biomass of both fish species because of physiological constraints on invertebrate prey which reduce fish foraging opportunities. Exploitative competition also may be important in fish responses: when one fish taxon was removed, the other showed increased biomass. Although the pattern of simulation results was consistent across the four streams, the magnitude of change varied among streams. Streams with food webs fueled by multiple energy sources may be more resilient to changes to riparian forests and climate. Through application of a systems model, we gained insights into pathways of productivity for fish in forested stream ecosystems that provide understanding of processes that influence fish and streams, as well as implications for management of both.

Forest Ecology and Management↗

USGS2015

Females exceed males in mercury concentrations of burbot Lota lota

Examination of differences in contaminant concentrations between sexes of fish, across several fish species, may reveal clues for important behavioral and physiological differences between the sexes. We determined whole-fish total mercury (Hg) concentrations of 25 male and 25 female adult burbot Lota lota captured in Lake Erie during summer 2011, and of 14 male and 18 female adult burbot captured in Great Slave Lake (Northwest Territories, Canada) during winter 2013. On average, females were 22 % greater in Hg concentration than males. This difference was probably not due to a greater feeding rate by females, because results from previous studies based on polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) determinations of these same burbot indicated that males fed at a substantially greater rate than females. Based on our determinations of Hg concentrations in the gonads and somatic tissue of five ripe females and five ripe males, this difference was not attributable to changes in Hg concentration immediately after spawning due to release of gametes. Further, bioenergetics modeling results from previous studies indicated that growth dilution would not explain any portion of this observed difference in Hg concentrations between the sexes. We, therefore, conclude that this difference was most likely due to a substantially faster rate of Hg elimination by males compared with females. Male burbot exhibit among the greatest gonadosomatic indices (GSIs) of all male fishes, with their testes accounting for between 10 and 15 % of their body weight when the fish are in ripe condition. Androgens have been linked to enhanced Hg elimination rates in other vertebrates. If androgen production is positively related to GSI, then male burbot would be expected to have among the greatest androgen levels of all fishes. Thus, we hypothesize that male burbot eliminate Hg from their bodies faster than most other male fishes, and this explains the greater Hg concentration in females compared with males.

Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxico↗

USGS2008

Utilization of protein expression profiles as indicators of environmental impairment of smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu) from the Shenandoah River, Virginia, USA

The Shenandoah River (VA, USA), the largest tributary of the Potomac River (MD, USA) and an important source of drinking water, has been the site of extensive fish kills since 2004. Previous investigations indicate environmental stressors may be adversely modulating the immune system of smallmouth bass ( Micropterus dolomieu ) and other species. Anterior kidney (AK) tissue, the major site of blood cell production in fish, was collected from smallmouth bass at three sites along the Shenandoah River. The tissue was divided for immune function and proteomics analyses. Bactericidal activity and respiratory burst were significantly different between North Fork and mainstem Shenandoah River smallmouth bass, whereas South Fork AK tissue did not significantly differ in either of these measures compared with the other sites. Cytotoxic cell activity was highest among South Fork and lowest among North Fork AK leukocytes. The composite two‐dimension gels of the North Fork and mainstem smallmouth bass AK tissues contained 584 and 591 spots, respectively. South Fork smallmouth bass AK expressed only 335 proteins. Nineteen of 50 proteins analyzed by matrix‐assisted laser desorption ionization‐time of flight were successfully identified. Three of the four identified proteins with increased expression in South Fork AK tissue were involved in metabolism. Seven proteins exclusive to mainstem and North Fork smallmouth bass AK and expressed at comparable abundances serve immune and stress response functions. The proteomics data indicate these fish differ in metabolic capacity of AK tissue and in the ability to produce functional leukocytes. The variable responses of the immune function assays further indicate disruption to the immune system. Our results allow us to hypothesize underlying physiological changes that may relate to fish kills and suggest relevant contaminants known to produce similar physiological disruption.

Virginia↗

USGS2025

Range-wide ecology, conservation, and research needs for yellow lampmussel (Lampsilis cariosa)

The freshwater mussel yellow lampmussel ( Lampsilis cariosa ) is declining throughout its range along the Atlantic Slope of the eastern United States and Canada, and the species is a target for proactive conservation to avoid federal listing. This paper synthesizes information about the ecology (physiology and life history, host fishes, and habitat), species distribution, genetics, and threats to L. cariosa . Identified threats include climate change, habitat alteration, and invasive species, dependent on location. We outline 16 emergent research and conservation management needs based on literature review and discussion with stakeholders (state and federal mussel biologists, researchers, and tribal groups). These needs range from research on the basic physiology and behavior of the species, to creating standardized protocols for surveys and DNA sampling, to ultimately developing a range-wide species conservation and restoration plan. Addressing these information gaps and incorporating the findings into future management may facilitate the implementation and success of large-scale restoration and conservation initiatives such as habitat protection and reintroduction of L. cariosa to historical locations.

Hydrobiologia↗

USGS2025

Designing sortable guilds for multispecies selective fish passage

The importance of connectivity for freshwater organisms is widely recognised, yet in-stream barriers associated with population declines and increased risk of extinction remain globally ubiquitous. Despite their negative consequences, these barriers can protect aquatic communities by limiting the spread of invasive species, leading to conflicting management goals in some regions. Selective fish passage is a solution for the conflicting goals of passing native, desirable species while restricting the spread of invasives. Approaches that can target groups of species sharing similar attributes (i.e. guilds) are likely to be more efficient than those that target species individually, particularly in taxonomically diverse systems. We explored the guild structure of 220 Great Lakes freshwater fishes based on morphological, phenological, physiological and behavioural attributes associated with passage and movement. We identified five distinct guilds as well as the attributes most important for defining these groupings: maximum total length, trophic level, relative eye size, spawning temperature, spawning season, presence/absence of ampullary electroreceptors and the presence/absence of hearing specialisations. The approaches outlined in this work can be generalised to enhance selective fish passage in aquatic ecosystems worldwide.

Fish and Fisheries↗

USGS1999

Bioenergetics estimate of the effects of stocking density on hatchery production of smallmouth bass fingerlings

Production of and consumption by hatchery-reared fingerling (age-0) smallmouth bass Micropterus dolomieu at various simulated stocking densities were estimated with a bioenergetics model. Fish growth rates and pond water temperatures during the 1996 growing season at two hatcheries in Oklahoma were used in the model. Fish growth and simulated consumption and production differed greatly between the two hatcheries, probably because of differences in pond fertilization and mortality rates. Our results suggest that appropriate stocking density depends largely on prey availability as affected by pond fertilization and on fingerling mortality rates. The bioenergetics model provided a useful tool for estimating production at various stocking density rates. However, verification of physiological parameters for age-0 fish of hatchery-reared species is needed.

Oklahoma↗

USGS2016

Conifer density within lake catchments predicts fish mercury concentrations in remote subalpine lakes

Remote high-elevation lakes represent unique environments for evaluating the bioaccumulation of atmospherically deposited mercury through freshwater food webs, as well as for evaluating the relative importance of mercury loading versus landscape influences on mercury bioaccumulation. The increase in mercury deposition to these systems over the past century, coupled with their limited exposure to direct anthropogenic disturbance make them useful indicators for estimating how changes in mercury emissions may propagate to changes in Hg bioaccumulation and ecological risk. We evaluated mercury concentrations in resident fish from 28 high-elevation, sub-alpine lakes in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Fish total mercury (THg) concentrations ranged from 4 to 438 ng/g wet weight, with a geometric mean concentration (±standard error) of 43 ± 2 ng/g ww. Fish THg concentrations were negatively correlated with relative condition factor, indicating that faster growing fish that are in better condition have lower THg concentrations. Across the 28 study lakes, mean THg concentrations of resident salmonid fishes varied as much as 18-fold among lakes. We used a hierarchal statistical approach to evaluate the relative importance of physiological, limnological, and catchment drivers of fish Hg concentrations. Our top statistical model explained 87% of the variability in fish THg concentrations among lakes with four key landscape and limnological variables: catchment conifer density (basal area of conifers within a lake's catchment), lake surface area, aqueous dissolved sulfate, and dissolved organic carbon. Conifer density within a lake's catchment was the most important variable explaining fish THg concentrations across lakes, with THg concentrations differing by more than 400 percent across the forest density spectrum. These results illustrate the importance of landscape characteristics in controlling mercury bioaccumulation in fish.

Environmental Pollution↗

USGS2015

Mercury concentrations of bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) vary by sex

Patterns in relative differences in contaminant concentrations between the sexes across many species of fish may reveal clues for important behavioral and physiological differences between the sexes, and may also be useful in developing fish consumption advisories and efficient designs for programs meant to monitor contaminant levels in fish. We determined skin-off fillet and whole-fish total mercury (Hg) concentrations of 28 adult female and 26 adult male bluegills ( Lepomis macrochirus ) from Squaw Lake, Oakland County, Michigan (MI), USA. Bioenergetics modeling was used to quantify the effect of growth dilution on the difference in Hg concentrations between the sexes. On average, skin-off fillet and whole-fish Hg concentrations were 25.4% higher and 26.6% higher, respectively, in females compared with males. Thus, the relative difference in Hg concentrations between the sexes for skin-off fillets was nearly identical to that for whole fish. However, mean skin-off fillet Hg concentration (363 ng/g) was 2.3 times greater than mean whole-fish Hg concentration (155 ng/g). Males grew substantially faster than females, and bioenergetics modeling results indicated that the growth dilution effect could account for females having 14.4% higher Hg concentrations than males. Our findings should be useful in revising fish consumption advisories.

Environments↗

USGS1992

Physiological and hematological changes in Chum Salmon artificially infected with Erythrocytic Necrosis virus

Chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta were injected with erythrocytic necrosis virus (ENV) to study the physiological and hematological consequences of ENV infection. Infected and control fish were held in pathogen-free seawater and sampled for 5 weeks. Physiological tests included measures of plasma cortisol, glucose, protein, and osmolality; blood lactic acid; and liver glycogen. In general, ENV-infected fish had lower plasma glucose and blood lactic acid, and higher liver glycogen concentrations than did control fish. Hematological tests included red and white blood cell (RBC and WBC) counts, hematocrit, measurement of blood hemoglobin concentration, and a determination of erythrocyte fragility. Infected fish had lower RBC counts, hematocrits, and hemoglobin concentrations; higher WBC counts; and less fragile erythrocytes than did control fish. The hematology data indicated that erythrocytes of infected fish had higher mean corpuscular volume, depressed mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, and slightly lower mean corpuscular hemoglobin. Erythrocytic inclusions were observed in the cytoplasm of RBCs from infected fish. The infection progressed steadily through week 4, after which the fish appeared to begin recovering. In a second study, fish were infected with ENV for 3 weeks, and recovery from a stress challenge test was measured. Plasma glucose concentrations and osmclality were higher in infected fish, whereas plasma cortisol and blood lactate were only slightly elevated. These studies indicate that chum salmon withstood the effects of ENV infection without in-eversible physiological consequences. However, when subjected to a stress challenge test, infected fish recovered more slowly than control fish and had increased osmoregulatory difficulties.

Journal of Aquatic Animal Health↗

USGS2016

Sex differences in contaminant concentrations of fish: a synthesis

Comparison of whole-fish polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) and total mercury (Hg) concentrations in mature males with those in mature females may provide insights into sex differences in behavior, metabolism, and other physiological processes. In eight species of fish, we observed that males exceeded females in whole-fish PCB concentration by 17 to 43%. Based on results from hypothesis testing, we concluded that these sex differences were most likely primarily driven by a higher rate of energy expenditure, stemming from higher resting metabolic rate (or standard metabolic rate (SMR)) and higher swimming activity, in males compared with females. A higher rate of energy expenditure led to a higher rate of food consumption, which, in turn, resulted in a higher rate of PCB accumulation. For two fish species, the growth dilution effect also made a substantial contribution to the sex difference in PCB concentrations, although the higher energy expenditure rate for males was still the primary driver. Hg concentration data were available for five of the eight species. For four of these five species, the ratio of PCB concentration in males to PCB concentration in females was substantially greater than the ratio of Hg concentration in males to Hg concentration in females. In sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), a very primitive fish, the two ratios were nearly identical. The most plausible explanation for this pattern was that certain androgens, such as testosterone and 11-ketotestosterone, enhanced Hg-elimination rate in males. In contrast, long-term elimination of PCBs is negligible for both sexes. According to this explanation, males ingest Hg at a higher rate than females, but also eliminate Hg at a higher rate than females, in fish species other than sea lamprey. Male sea lamprey do not possess either of the above-specified androgens. These apparent sex differences in SMRs, activities, and Hg-elimination rates in teleost fishes may also apply, to some degree, to higher vertebrates including humans. Our synthesis findings will be useful in: (1) developing sex-specific bioenergetics models for fish, (2) developing sex-specific risk assessment models for exposure of humans and wildlife to contaminants, and (3) refining Hg mass balance models for fish and higher vertebrates.

Biology of Sex Differences↗

USGS2001

Endocrine control of osmoregulation teleost fish

As the primary link between environmental change and physiological response, the neuroendocrine system is a critical part of osmoregulatory adaptations. Cortisol has been viewed as ‘the’ seawater-adapting hormone in fish and prolactin as ‘the’ fresh water adapting hormone. Recent evidence indicates that the growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor I axis is also important in seawater adaptation in several teleosts of widely differing evolutionary lineages. In salmonids, growth hormone acts in synergy with cortisol to increase seawater tolerance, at least partly through the upregulation of gill cortisol receptors. Cortisol under some conditions may promote ion uptake and interacts with prolactin during acclimation to fresh water. The osmoregulatory actions of growth hormone and prolactin are antagonistic. In some species, thyroid hormones support the action of growth hormone and cortisol in promoting seawater acclimation. Although a broad generalization that holds for all teleosts is unlikely, our current understanding indicates that growth hormone promotes acclimation to seawater, prolactin promotes acclimation to fresh water, and cortisol interacts with both of these hormones thus having a dual osmoregulatory function.

American Zoologist↗

USGS1973

Nutritional factors in the biochemical pathology of Corynebacterial kidney disease in the coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)

The influence of diet ingredient on the morbidity and biochemical pathogenesis of corynebacterial kidney disease was investigated using juvenile coho salmon ( Oncorhynchus kisutch ) fed the Abernathy dry ration made up with either corn gluten or cottonseed meal (isoprotein, isocaloric substitution). Evaluation of incidence of infection, pituitary activation and aspects of carbohydrate metabolism, acid-base balance, renal function, and hematopoietic activity showed that the actual disease incidence was about the same for both diets but the nonspecific stress of infection was more severe in fish fed the corn gluten.Discriminant function calculations combining four physiological parameters gave a probability of 0.86 for successfully diagnosing infected fish on the basis of these blood chemistry tests.

Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada↗

USGS2021

Surface water with more natural temperatures promotes physiological and endocrine changes in landlocked Atlantic salmon smolts

Hatchery salmonid smolts are often reared using groundwater with elevated temperatures to maximize growth. Previous work has shown that rearing hatchery smolts in surface water with a more natural thermal regime resulted in increased return rates of adult landlocked Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar ). We evaluated whether landlocked Atlantic salmon reared in surface water with a natural temperature regime have altered physiological smolt characteristics compared with fish reared in groundwater with elevated winter temperatures. Hatchery fish were sampled three consecutive years from January to May. Additional fish were released as smolts, recaptured, and compared with fry-stocked smolts. Surface water smolts had earlier peaks of plasma T 4 , lower T 3 levels, later peak cortisol, and lower gill Na + /K + -ATPase activity as compared with groundwater smolts. After release and recapture, surface water fish had elevated plasma T 4 and gill Na + /K + -ATPase activity compared with groundwater fish, but less than stream-reared fish. Elevated plasma T 4 in surface water fish in the hatchery and after release may have promoted imprinting and other aspects of smolt development, contributing to the higher adult return rates of a cohort reared in surface water.

Vermont↗

USGS1994

Survival of caged Atlantic salmon in the Merrimack River

Because it is difficult to locate parr and smolts of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar in the lower Merrimack River in order to measure survival and evaluate physiological changes, 1 held hatchery fish in 122 × 46 ×61‐cm cages at three sites for up to 70 d in 1988 and 1989, beginning each year in early April. Stationary cages were placed at two freshwater sites (3 and 7.8 km above the mouth of the river) and at a tidal freshwater–seawater site, and then stocked with fish. Movable cages were placed in the river at the most upstream stationary‐cage site, stocked with fish, and later moved downstream by boat at irregular intervals. At the most upstream site mortality gradually increased through the season, reaching the highest level (about 60%) during a period of rising temperatures in late May. Although extremes in temperature and salinity were greatest at the freshwater–seawater site, mortality was lowest in the stationary cage there, The number of Atlantic salmon infected with Aeromonas salmonicida increased during the study. Disease and mortality data suggest that survival would be highest for fish that leave the river and enter seawater soon after stocking, especially late in the season when river flows are low. At that time water temperatures may approach levels that are lethal to Atlantic salmon or may interfere with their smoltification and migration.

Massachusetts↗