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USGS1992

Geochemistry of waters in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes region, Alaska

Meteoric waters from cold springs and streams outside of the 1912 eruptive deposits filling the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes (VTTS) and in the upper parts of the two major rivers draining the 1912 deposits have similar chemical trends. Thermal springs issue in the mid-valley area along a 300-m lateral section of ash-flow tuff, and range in temperature from 21 to 29.8??C in early summer and from 15 to 17??C in mid-summer. Concentrations of major and minor chemical constituents in the thermal waters are nearly identical regardless of temperature. Waters in the downvalley parts of the rivers draining the 1912 deposits are mainly mixtures of cold meteoric waters and thermal waters of which the mid-valley thermal spring waters are representative. The weathering reactions of cold waters with the 1912 deposits appear to have stabilized and add only subordinate amounts of chemical constituents to the rivers relative to those contributed by the thermal waters. Isotopic data indicate that the mid-valley thermal spring waters are meteoric, but data is inconclusive regarding the heat source. The thermal waters could be either from a shallow part of a hydrothermal system beneath the 1912 vent region or from an incompletely cooled, welded tuff lens deep in the 1912 ash-flow sheet of the upper River Lethe area. Bicarbonate-sulfate waters resulting from interaction of near-surface waters and the cooling 1953-1968 southwest Trident plug issue from thermal springs south of Katmai Pass and near Mageik Creek, although the Mageik Creek spring waters are from a well-established, more deeply circulating hydrothermal system. Katmai caldera lake waters are a result of acid gases from vigorous drowned fumaroles dissolving in lake waters composed of snowmelt and precipitation. ?? 1992.

Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research↗

USGS2026

Field methods, quality-assurance, and data management plan for water-quality activities and water-level measurements, Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho

Introduction Water-quality activities and water-level measurements conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Idaho National Laboratory (INL) Project Office coincide with the USGS mission of evaluating the quantity and quality of the Nation’s water resources. The activities are conducted in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Idaho Operations Office. Results of water-quality and hydraulic head research efforts are presented in various USGS and scientific journal publications (refer to Fisher, 2022). These data are stored internally in the Aquarius Time Series and Aquarius Samples databases and are publicly accessible through National Water Quality Monitoring Council (2025) and U.S. Geological Survey (2025). Data collected from our studies are used by researchers, Federal and State agencies, water management and regulatory organizations, as well as the public. This quality assurance plan (QAP) describes the methods and processes for field methods, data collection, data management, data auditing, and equipment management for both the water-quality and water-level programs at the USGS INL Project Office (hereto referred to as INL Project Office). A comprehensive quality assurance (QA) plan ensures that the processes defined in this document will guide the program staff to collect and publish reliable, useful, and defensible data products for stakeholders. This QAP supersedes previous versions of this document and is intended to complement the Quality Assurance and Data Management (QADM) Plan for the Idaho Water Science Center (IDWSC; Christopher Mebane and Lauren Zinsser, written commun., 2024).

Idaho↗

USGS2023

Broadening the perspectives of sedimentary organic matter analysis to understand Earth system response to change

This paper broadens the description of sedimentary organic matter from the conventional use of coal petrography to include palynological and geochemical sedimentary organic matter. Palynological sedimentary organic matter includes all chemically resistant organic microfossils, such as pollen and spores, dinocysts, microforaminifera (chitinoid-like linings of foraminifera), microscopic algae, charcoal, palynodebris, acritarchs, chitinozoans, and scolecodonts. Geochemical sedimentary organic matter includes organic biomarkers, lipids, and photosynthetic pigments. We provide examples of the use of palynological and geochemical analysis of sedimentary organic matter to understand patterns and impacts of changing climate, fire regimes, hydrologic extremes, water quality, and land change on terrestrial and marine systems through geologic time to provide a long-term perspective to evaluate anthropogenic impacts on the Earth as well as to support forensics investigations.

International Journal of Coal Geology↗

USGS2015

Increasing capture efficiency of pallid sturgeon Scaphirhynchus albus (Forbes and Richardson, 1905) and the reliability of catch rate estimates

This study evaluated the effects of environmental parameters on the probability of capturing endangered pallid sturgeon ( Scaphirhynchus albus ) using trotlines in the lower Mississippi River. Pallid sturgeon were sampled by trotlines year round from 2008 to 2011. A logistic regression model indicated water temperature ( T ; P < 0.01) and depth ( D ; P = 0.03) had significant effects on capture probability ( Y = −1.75 − 0.06 T + 0.10 D ). Habitat type, surface current velocity, river stage, stage change and non-sturgeon bycatch were not significant predictors (P = 0.26–0.63). Although pallid sturgeon were caught throughout the year, the model predicted that sampling should focus on times when the water temperature is less than 12°C and in deeper water to maximize capture probability; these water temperature conditions commonly occur during November to March in the lower Mississippi River. Further, the significant effect of water temperature which varies widely over time, as well as water depth indicate that any efforts to use the catch rate to infer population trends will require the consideration of temperature and depth in standardized sampling efforts or adjustment of estimates.

Mississippi↗

USGS2000

Transport of free and particulate-associated bacteria in karst

Karst aquifers, because of their unique hydrogeologic characteristics, are extremely susceptible to contamination by pathogens. Here we present the results of an investigation of contamination of a karst aquifer by fecal indicator bacteria. Two wells intercepting zones with contrasting effective hydraulic conductivities, as determined by pump test, were monitored both during the dry season and in response to a rain event. Samples were also collected from the adjacent ephemeral surface Stream, which is known to be impacted by an upstream wastewater treatment plant after rainfall. Whole water and suspended sediment samples were analyzed for fecal coliforms and enterococci. During the dry season, pumping over a 2-day period resulted in increases in concentrations of fecal coliforms to greater than 10,000 CFU/100 ml in the high-conductivity well; enterococci and total suspended solids also increased, to a lesser degree. Toward the end of the pumping period, as much as 50% of the fecal coliforms were associated with suspended sediment. Irrigation of an up-gradient pine plantation with primary-treated wastewater is the probable source of the bacterial contamination. Sampling after a rain event revealed the strong influence of water quality of the adjacent Terrieu Creek on the ground water. Bacterial concentrations in the wells showed a rapid response to increased concentrations in the surface water, with fecal coliform concentrations in ground water ultimately reaching 60,000 CFU/100 ml. Up to 100% of the bacteria in the ground water was associated with suspended sediment at various times. The results of this investigation are evidence of the strong influence of surface water on ground water in karst terrain, including that of irrigation water. The large proportion of bacteria associated with particulates in the ground Water has important implications for public health, as bacteria associated with particulates may be more persistent and more difficult to inactivate. The high bacterial concentrations found in both wells, despite the difference in hydraulic conductivity, demonstrates the difficulty of predicting vulnerability of individual wells to bacterial contamination in karst. The extreme temporal variability in bacterial concentrations underscores the importance of event-based monitoring of the bacterial quality of public water supplies in karst. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science B.V.Karst aquifers, because of their unique hydrogeologic characteristics, are extremely susceptible to contamination by pathogens. Here we present the results of an investigation of contamination of a karst aquifer by fecal indicator bacteria. Two wells intercepting zones with contrasting effective hydraulic conductivities, as determined by pump test, were monitored both during the dry season and in response to a rain event. Samples were also collected from the adjacent ephemeral surface stream, which is known to be impacted by an upstream wastewater treatment plant after rainfall. Whole water and suspended sediment samples were analyzed for fecal coliforms and enterococci. During the dry season, pumping over a 2-day period resulted in increases in concentrations of fecal coliforms to greater than 10,000 CFU/100 ml in the high-conductivity well; enterococci and total suspended solids also increased, to a lesser degree. Toward the end of the pumping period, as much as 50% of the fecal coliforms were associated with suspended sediment. Irrigation of an up-gradient pine plantation with primary-treated wastewater is the probable source of the bacterial contamination. Sampling after a rain event revealed the strong influence of water quality of the adjacent Terrieu Creek on the ground water. Bacterial concentrations in the wells showed a rapid response to increased concentrations in the surface water, with fecal coliform concentrations in ground water ultimately reaching 60,000 CFU/100 ml. Up to 100% of the bacteria in the ground water was associated with suspended

Journal of Hydrology↗

USGS2006

Geologic, hydrologic, and geochemical interpretations of mineral deposits as analogs for understanding transport of environmental contaminants

Base- and precious-metal mineral deposits comprise anomalous concentrations of metals and associated elements, which may be useful subjects for study as analogs for migration of environmental contaminants. In the geologic past, hydrothermal mineral deposits formed at the intersection of favorable geologic, hydrologic and geochemical gradients. In the present, weathering of these sulfide-rich deposits occurs as a result of the interplay between rates of oxygen supply versus rates of ground or surface-water flow. Transport and spatial dispersion of elements from a mineral deposit occurs as a function of competing rates of water flow versus rates of attenuation mechanisms such as adsorption, dilution, or (co)precipitation. In this paper we present several case studies from mineralized and altered sedimentary and crystalline aquifers in the western United States to illustrate the geologic control of ground-water flow and solute transport, and to demonstrate how this combined approach leads to a more complete understanding of the systems under study as well as facilitating some capability to predict major flow directions in aquifers.

Journal of Geochemical Exploration↗

USGS2007

Predicting baseflow alkalinity as an index to episodic stream acidification and fish presence

Regression models to predict baseflow alkalinity from basin hydrogeology were developed and verified for headwater streams on the Laurel Hill anticline in southwestern Pennsylvania. Predicted baseflow alkalinities were then used to estimate sensitivity to acidification and presence of trout ( Salvelinus fontinalis ) populations for 61 headwater streams. Sensitivity classifications were verified by surveying trout populations. Geologic variables relating to the carbonate rock burial depth, extent of carbonate rock recharge areas, and length of stream channel flowing through effluent carbonate rock outcrops were much more useful in predicting baseflow alkalinity than areal extent of carbonate rocks. Baseflow alkalinity was not well related to status of trout populations on these anticlinal basins, especially on noneffluent basins where bedrock dip exceeded surface slope.

Journal of the American Water Resources Associatio↗

USGS2006

Helping Students make the transition from novice learner of ground-water concepts to expert using the Plume Busters software

Environmental and earth science students are novice learners and lack the experience needed to rise to the level of expert. To address this problem we have developed the prototype Plume Busters?? software as a capstone educational experience, in which students take on the role of an environmental consultant. Following a pipeline spill, the environmental consultant is hired by the pipeline owner to locate the resulting plume created by spill and remediate the contaminated aquifer at minimum monetary and time cost. The contamination must be removed from the aquifer before it reaches the river and eventually a downstream public water supply. The software consists of an interactive Java application and accompanying HTML linked pages. The application simulates movement of a plume from a pipeline break throug h a shallow alluvial aquifer towards the river. The accompanying web pages establish the simulated contamination scenario and provide students with background material on ground-water flow and transport principles. To make the role-play more realistic, the student must consider cost and time when making decisions about siting observation wells and wells for the pump-and-treat remediation system.

Journal of Geoscience Education↗

USGS2016

A partial exponential lumped parameter model to evaluate groundwater age distributions and nitrate trends in long-screened wells

A partial exponential lumped parameter model (PEM) was derived to determine age distributions and nitrate trends in long-screened production wells. The PEM can simulate age distributions for wells screened over any finite interval of an aquifer that has an exponential distribution of age with depth. The PEM has 3 parameters – the ratio of saturated thickness to the top and bottom of the screen and mean age, but these can be reduced to 1 parameter (mean age) by using well construction information and estimates of the saturated thickness. The PEM was tested with data from 30 production wells in a heterogeneous alluvial fan aquifer in California, USA. Well construction data were used to guide parameterization of a PEM for each well and mean age was calibrated to measured environmental tracer data ( 3 H, 3 He, CFC-113, and 14 C). Results were compared to age distributions generated for individual wells using advective particle tracking models (PTMs). Age distributions from PTMs were more complex than PEM distributions, but PEMs provided better fits to tracer data, partly because the PTMs did not simulate 14 C accurately in wells that captured varying amounts of old groundwater recharged at lower rates prior to groundwater development and irrigation. Nitrate trends were simulated independently of the calibration process and the PEM provided good fits for at least 11 of 24 wells. This work shows that the PEM, and lumped parameter models (LPMs) in general, can often identify critical features of the age distributions in wells that are needed to explain observed tracer data and nonpoint source contaminant trends, even in systems where aquifer heterogeneity and water-use complicate distributions of age. While accurate PTMs are preferable for understanding and predicting aquifer-scale responses to water use and contaminant transport, LPMs can be sensitive to local conditions near individual wells that may be inaccurately represented or missing in an aquifer-scale flow model.

California↗

USGS2012

Ballistic blocks around Kīlauea Caldera: Their vent locations and number of eruptions in the late 18th century

Thousands of ballistic blocks occur around Kīlauea Caldera and record part of the latest major period of explosive activity on the volcano, in late 1790 or within a few years thereafter. The sizes of the blocks – the largest of which is more than 2 m in nominal diameter – and differences in rock types allow the definition of at least 6 dispersal lobes of mostly undetermined relative age. The orientations of the lobes help approximate the locations of vents or explosion sources on the floor of the caldera, now deeply buried by younger lava flows. The vents may have been distributed northward for about 2 km from near the site of the modern Halema'uma'u Crater and were apparently confined to the western half of the caldera. The blocks are entirely lithic except for those in one dispersal lobe, which contains cored bombs and blocks as well as juvenile lapilli. Eruption parameters calculated from EJECT! suggest that the phreatic and phreatomagmatic explosions could have been generated at the water table, about 600 m below the high point on the caldera rim.

Hawai'i↗

USGS2003

Summary of recent research in Long Valley Caldera, California

Since 1978, volcanic unrest in the form of earthquakes and ground deformation has persisted in the Long Valley caldera and adjacent parts of the Sierra Nevada. The papers in this special volume focus on periods of accelerated seismicity and deformation in 1980, 1983, 1989-1990, and 1997-1998 to delineate relations between geologic, tectonic, and hydrologic processes. The results distinguish between earthquake sequences that result from relaxation of existing stress accumulation through brittle failure and those in which brittle failure is driven by active intrusion. They also indicate that in addition to a relatively shallow (7-10-km) source beneath the resurgent dome, there exists a deeper (???15-km) source beneath the south moat. Analysis of microgravimety and deformation data indicates that the composition of the shallower source may involve a combination of silicic magma and hydrothermal fluid. Pressure and temperature fluctuations in wells have accompanied periods of crustal unrest, and additional pressure and temperature changes accompanying ongoing geothermal power production have resulted in land subsidence. The completion in 1998 of a 3000-m-deep drill hole on the resurgent dome has provided useful information on present and past periods of circulation of water at temperatures of 100-200??C within the crystalline basement rocks that underlie the post-caldera volcanics. The well is now being converted to a permanent geophysical monitoring station. ?? 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research↗

USGS2011

Comment on “An unconfined groundwater model of the Death Valley Regional Flow System and a comparison to its confined predecessor” by R.W.H. Carroll, G.M. Pohll and R.L. Hershey [Journal of Hydrology 373/3–4, pp. 316–328]

Carroll et al. (2009) state that the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Death Valley Regional Flow System (DVRFS) model, which is based on MODFLOW, is “conceptually inaccurate in that it models an unconfined aquifer as a confined system and does not simulate unconfined drawdown in transient pumping simulations.” Carroll et al. (2009) claim that “more realistic estimates of water availability” can be produced by a SURFACT-based model of the DVRFS that simulates unconfined groundwater flow and limits withdrawals from wells to avoid excessive drawdown. Differences in results from the original MODFLOW-based model and the SURFACT-based model stem primarily from application by Carroll et al. (2009) of head limits that can also be applied using the existing MODLOW model and not from any substantial difference in the accuracy with which the unconfined aquifer is represented in the two models. In a hypothetical 50-year predictive simulation presented by Carroll et al. (2009), large differences between the models are shown when simulating pumping from the lower clastic confining unit, where the transmissivity is nearly two orders of magnitude less than in an alluvial aquifer. Yet even for this extreme example, drawdowns and pumping rates from the MODFLOW and SURFACT models are similar when the head-limit capabilities of the MODFLOW MNW Package are applied. These similarities persist despite possible discrepancies between assigned hydraulic properties. The resulting comparison between the MODFLOW and SURFACT models of the DVRFS suggests that approximating the unconfined system in the DVRFS as a constant-saturated-thickness system (called a “confined system” by Carroll et al., 2009) performs very well.

Death Valley↗

USGS1981

Chemical constraints of groundwater management in the Yucatan peninsula, Mexico

Two critical objectives of water management in the Yucatan are: (1) to develop regional groundwater supplies for an expanding population and tourism based on the Mayan archeological sites and excellent beaches; and (2) to control groundwater pollution in a chemically sensitive system made vulnerable by geologic conditions. The Yucatan peninsula is a coastal plain underlain by permeable limestone and has an annual rainfall of more than 1000 mm. Such a setting should provide abundant supplies of water; however, factors of climate and hydrogeology have combined to form a hydrologic system with chemical boundaries that decrease the amount of available fresh water. Management of water resources has long had a major influence on the cultural and economic development of the Yucatan. The Mayan culture of the northern Yucatan developed by extensive use of groundwater. The religion was water-oriented and the Mayan priests prayed to Chac, the water god, for assistance in water management primarily to decrease the severity of droughts. The Spaniards arrived in 1517 and augmented the supplies by digging wells, which remained the common practice for more than 300 years. Many wells now have been abandoned because of serious problems of pollution resulting from the use of a sewage disposal well adjacent to each supply well. The modern phase of water management began in 1959 when the Secretaría de Recursos Hidráulicos (S.R.H.) was charged with the responsibility for both scientific investigations and development programmes for water-supply and sewage-disposal systems for cities, villages and islands.

Yucatan peninsula↗

USGS2010

New insights from well responses to fluctuations in barometric pressure

Hydrologists have long recognized that changes in barometric pressure can produce changes in water levels in wells. The barometric response function (BRF) has proven to be an effective means to characterize this relationship; we show here how it can also be utilized to glean valuable insights into semi-confined aquifer systems. The form of the BRF indicates the degree of aquifer confinement, while a comparison of BRFs between wells sheds light on hydrostratigraphic continuity. A new approach for estimating hydraulic properties of aquitards from BRFs has been developed and verified. The BRF is not an invariant characteristic of a well; in unconfined or semi-confined aquifers, it can change with conditions in the vadose zone. Field data from a long-term research site demonstrate the hydrostratigraphic insights that can be gained from monitoring water levels and barometric pressure. Such insights should be of value for a wide range of practical applications. ?? 2010 The Author(s). Journal compilation ?? 2010 National Ground Water Association.

Ground Water↗

USGS2007

Identification of an optimal groundwater management strategy in a contaminated aquifer

A groundwater hydraulic management model is used to identify the optimal strategy for allocating limited fresh-water supplies and containing wastes in a hypothetical aquifer affected by brine contamination from surface disposal ponds. The present cost of pumping from a network of potential supply and interception wells is minimized over a five-year planning period, subject to a set of hydraulic, institutional, and legal constraints. Hydraulic constraints are formulated using linear systems theory to describe drawdown and velocity variables as linear functions of supply and interception well discharge decision variables. Successful validation of the optimal management strategy suggests that the model formulation can feasibly be applied to define management options for locally contaminated aquifer systems which are used to fulfill fresh-water demands.

Journal of the American Water Resources Associatio↗

USGS2003

Hydrological response to earthquakes in the Haibara well, central Japan - II. Possible mechanism inferred from time-varying hydraulic properties

28 coseismic groundwater level decreases have been observed at the Haibara well, Shizuoka prefecture, central Japan, from 1981 to 1997. These groundwater level changes cannot be explained as the poroelastic response to coseismic static strain. We use the atmospheric pressure and tidal responses of the well, rock properties measured on core samples from the same formation and pumping test results to characterize the hydraulic and mechanical properties of the aquifer. The responses of the Haibara well to the M2 Earth tide constituent and to atmospheric pressure have varied over time. In particular, increasing amplitude and decreasing phase lags were observed after the 1993 pumping test, as well as after earthquakes that caused coseismic water level changes. The tidal response, together with the surface load efficiency derived from the atmospheric pressure response, is used to estimate the mechanical properties of the aquifer. The largest amplitude of the M2 constituent, 2.2 mm, is small enough to imply that pore fluid in this system is approximately twice as compressible as water, possibly due to the presence of a small amount of exsolved gas. Diffusion of a coseismic pressure drop near the well could account for the observed time histories of the water level changes. The time histories of the water level drops are well matched by the decay of a coseismic pressure drop at least 80 m away from the well. Removal of a small amount of gas from the formation in that location might in turn explain the coseismic pressure drops.

Geophysical Journal International↗

USGS2017

Fraction of young water as an indicator of aquifer vulnerability along two regional flow paths in the Mississippi embayment aquifer system, southeastern USA

Wells along two regional flow paths were sampled to characterize changes in water quality and the vulnerability to contamination of the Memphis aquifer across a range of hydrologic and land-use conditions in the southeastern United States. The flow paths begin in the aquifer outcrop area and end at public supply wells in the confined parts of the aquifer at Memphis, Tennessee. Age-date tracer (e.g. SF 6 , 3 H, 14 C) data indicate that a component of young water is present in the aquifer at most locations along both flow paths, which is consistent with previous studies at Memphis that documented leakage of shallow water into the Memphis aquifer locally where the overlying confining unit is thin or absent. Mixtures of young and old water were most prevalent where long-term pumping for public supply has lowered groundwater levels and induced downward movement of young water. The occurrence of nitrate, chloride and synthetic organic compounds was correlated to the fraction of young water along the flow paths. Oxic conditions persisted for 10 km or more down dip of the confining unit, and the presence of young water in confined parts of the aquifer suggest that contaminants such as nitrate-N have the potential for transport. Long-term monitoring data for one of the flow-path wells screened in the confined part of the aquifer suggest that the vulnerability of the aquifer as indicated by the fraction of young water is increasing over time.

Hydrogeology Journal↗

USGS1971

Effects of karst features on circulation of water in carbonate rocks in coastal areas

The normal balance between fresh water in coastal aquifers and sea water applies also to carbonate-rock aquifers that have been karstified, but there are local modifications in the balance that need to be considered. Uneven distribution of permeability, expressed by a network of solution channels bounded by relatively impermeabler rock, causes an uneven distribution of head of the environmental water along the seacoast. Where sinkholes and (or) vertical solution shafts below sea level penetrate the aquifer, the fresh ground water may discharge through these karst features if the fresh-water head is greater than that of the salt water. However, under some conditions the salt-water head may exceed that of the fresh water, and the direction of movement is reversed as sea water flows into the aquifer. This sea-water flow into the aquifer occurs (1) where sinkholes, acting as “cased wells,” penetrate less permeable rock before reaching a lateral solution channel and (2) where (or when) the fresh-water head is less than that required to balance the salt water. On Andros Island, Bahamas, the range in tide (as much as 5 feet) from low tide to high tide is sufficient to cause such a reversal locally. During low tide the salt-water head becomes sufficiently low that the ground-water head exceeds that of the sea water, and the ground water flows through the sinkholes to the ocean floor; during high tide sea water flows in the sinkholes. In the Adriatic Sea along the coast of Yugoslavia, apparently the fresh-water head is sufficient to produce perennial springs in some localities, but in other areas, as in the Bay of Kastela near Split, the fresh-water head becomes low enough during some seasons that the flow is reversed and salt water enters the aquifer through the karst features. The development of sinkholes and other karst features near the present coast and extending below sea level occurred generally during a low stand of the Pleistocene sea when the top of the saturated zone stood lower than the bottom of the deepest sinkholes or natural wells. Integrated evaluations of (1) the distribution of permeability in coastal karst regions and (2) the principles relating to the dynamic balance between fresh aquifer water and sea water are leading to better knowledge of methods that may salvage much karst water which is lost to the sea.

Split↗