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USGS2023

Geothermal energy production adversely affects a sensitive indicator species within sagebrush ecosystems in western North America

Growing demand for renewable energy has resulted in expansion of energy infrastructure across sagebrush ecosystems of western North America. Geothermal power is an increasingly popular renewable energy source, especially within remote areas, but little is known about the impacts it may have on local wildlife populations. Investigations are warranted given similarities to more conventional surface disturbance activities with well-documented impacts. Using a novel 2-pronged analytical approach, we estimated effects of geothermal energy production activities (hereafter, geothermal) on populations of greater sage-grouse ( Centrocercus urophasianus ; hereafter, sage-grouse), a species of high conservation concern. First, we applied a before-after-control-impact paired series design at two geothermal sites in Nevada, USA, to estimate absence rates of male sage-grouse from lek sites (breeding grounds) and changes in predicted apparent abundance ( λ ̂ "> �̂ ) in relation to geothermal energy infrastructure. We then estimated effects of geothermal energy infrastructure and other environmental covariates on demographic rates. We found λ ̂ "> �̂ declined ∼24 % within 5 km of geothermal sites, while lek absence rates (e.g., indicating local extirpation) increased by ∼730 % within 2 km. Our demographic models revealed decreased nest survival in association with proximity to geothermal infrastructure, reduced topographic impedance surface (TIS; a proxy for sound and light dispersion emanating from geothermal infrastructure), and increased density of common ravens ( Corvus corax ), an effective nest predator. Models also estimated decreases in adult survival in relation to TIS. Finally, we applied population matrix models within a quantitative decision support framework to help guide locations for future geothermal development that balance the need for domestic energy production while minimizing adverse effects on wildlife populations.

Biological Conservation↗

USGS2024

Mixed responses of tenebrionid beetles to solar energy development in the Mojave Desert

Solar energy development causes land-use change and habitat alteration that may affect desert ecosystems. Tenebrionid beetles have evolved to exploit desert environments and heavily contribute to ecosystem functionality in aridlands, yet their species-specific, ecological responses to solar energy development are unknown. Our objective was to elucidate effects of solar energy development decisions at a solar power facility (392 MW) on a tenebrionid beetle community in the Mojave Desert. Seven years post-construction, we used pitfall traps to collect tenebrionid beetles for one month in treatments representing variably intense site preparation practices and conservation measures, including blading (i.e., bulldozing), mowing, and establishment of undeveloped patches in solar fields, replicated across three power blocks comprising the facility and in undeveloped control sites surrounding the facility. Blading caused significant, deleterious effects on tenebrionid beetle abundance, species richness, and diversity. Ordination revealed apparent overlap of non-bladed treatments and controls, suggesting that intermediate levels of disturbance from less intensive solar energy development decisions may serve to minimize negative effects of solar energy development on tenebrionid communities. Anepsius delicatulus and Triorophus laevis , the two most commonly collected tenebrionids, were significantly more abundant in non-bladed treatments in the solar facility than in undeveloped controls; thus, solar facilities with minimized disturbance to vegetation may provide preferred habitat for certain tenebrionid species. Our results demonstrate the value of understanding variable responses of insects to solar energy development decisions in deserts to inform real-world adaptive management of natural resources during the renewable energy transition.

California↗

USGS2019

Predicting attenuation of salinized surface- and groundwater-resources from legacy energy development in the Prairie Pothole Region

Oil and gas (energy) development in the Williston Basin, which partly underlies the Prairie Pothole Region in central North America, has helped meet U.S. energy demand for decades. Historical handling and disposal practices of saline wastewater co-produced during energy development resulted in salinization of surface and groundwater at numerous legacy energy sites. Thirty years of monitoring (1988–2018) at Goose Lake, which has been producing since the 1960s, documents long-term spatial and temporal changes in water quality from legacy energy development. Surface water quality was highly variable and decoupled from changes in groundwater quality, likely due to annual and regional climatic fluctuations. Therefore, changes in surface water-quality were not considered a reliable indicator of subsurface chloride migration. However, chloride concentrations in monitoring wells near wastewater sources exhibited systematic temporal reductions allowing for estimates of the time required for natural attenuation of groundwater to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency acute and chronic chloride toxicity benchmarks and a local background level. Point attenuation rates differed based on sediment type (outwash vs till) and yielded a range of predicted years when water-quality targets will be reached: acute – 2045 to 2113; chronic – 2069 to 2160; background – 2126 to 2275. Bulk attenuation rates from four separate years of data were used to calculate the distances chloride could migrate downgradient from the largest wastewater source. Potential distances of downgradient migration before dilution to water-quality targets decreased from 1989 to 2018: acute – 949 to 673 m; chronic – 1220 to 922 m; background – 1878 to 1525 m. Several downgradient wetlands are within these distances and will continue to receive saline contaminated groundwater for years. While these results demonstrate chloride attenuation at a legacy energy site, they also highlight the persistence of saline wastewater contamination and the need to mitigate future spills to prevent long-term salinization from energy development.

Montana↗

USGS2002

Energy budget above a high-elevation subalpine forest in complex topography

Components of the energy budget were measured above a subalpine coniferous forest over two complete annual cycles. Sensible and latent heat fluxes were measured by eddy covariance. Bowen ratios ranged from 0.7 to 2.5 in the summer (June–September) depending upon the availability of soil water, but were considerably higher (∼3–6) during winter (December–March). Energy budget closure averaged better than 84% on a half-hourly basis in both seasons with slightly greater closure during the winter months. The energy budget showed a dependence on friction velocity ( u ∗ ), approaching complete closure at u ∗ values greater than 1 m s −1 . The dependence of budget closure on u ∗ explained why energy balance was slightly better in the winter as opposed to summer, since numerous periods of high turbulence occur in winter. It also explained the lower degree of energy closure (∼10% less) during easterly upslope flow since these periods were characterized by low wind speeds ( U <4 m s −1 ) and friction velocities ( u ∗ <0.5 "> u∗<0.5 m s −1 ). Co-spectral analysis suggests a shift of flux density towards higher frequencies under conditions where closure was obtained. It is suggested that low frequency contributions to the flux and advection were responsible for the lack of day-time energy budget closure. These effects were reduced at high friction velocities observed at our site. Our ability to close the energy budget at night was also highly dependent on friction velocity, approaching near closure (∼90%) at u ∗ values between 0.7 and 1.1 m s −1 . Below this range, the airflow within the canopy becomes decoupled with the flow above. Above this range, insufficient temperature resolution of the sonic anemometer obscured the small temperature fluctuations, rendering measurements intractable.

Agricultural and Forest Meteorology↗

USGS2011

Equilibrium shoreline response of a high wave energy beach

Four years of beach elevation surveys at Ocean Beach, San Francisco, California, are used to extend an existing equilibrium shoreline change model, previously calibrated with fine sand and moderate energy waves, to medium sand and higher-energy waves. The shoreline, characterized as the cross-shore location of the mean high water contour, varied seasonally by between 30 and 60 m, depending on the alongshore location. The equilibrium shoreline change model relates the rate of horizontal shoreline displacement to the hourly wave energy E and the wave energy disequilibrium, the difference between E and the equilibrium wave energy that would cause no change in the present shoreline location. Values for the model shoreline response coefficients are tuned to fit the observations in 500 m alongshore segments and averaged over segments where the model has good skill and the estimated effects of neglected alongshore sediment transport are relatively small. Using these representative response coefficients for 0.3 mm sand from Ocean Beach and driving the model with much lower-energy winter waves observed at San Onofre Beach (also 0.3 mm sand) in southern California, qualitatively reproduces the small seasonal shoreline fluctuations at San Onofre. This consistency suggests that the shoreline model response coefficients depend on grain size and may be constant, and thus transportable, between sites with similar grain size and different wave climates. The calibrated model response coefficients predict that for equal fluctuations in wave energy, changes in shoreline location on a medium-grained (0.3 mm) beach are much smaller than on a previously studied fine-grained (0.2 mm) beach. Copyright ?? 2011 by the American Geophysical Union.

Journal of Geophysical Research C: Oceans↗

USGS2012

Energy and plane waves in linear viscoelastic media

The mathematical framework for describing plane waves in elastic and linear anelastic media is presented. Theoretical results suggest that the nature of plane waves in anelastic materials is distinctly different from the nature of plane waves in elastic materials. In elastic media the only type of inhomogeneous plane wave ( P or S ) that can propagate is one for which planes of constant phase are perpendicular to planes of constant amplitude. However, in anelastic media this is the only type of inhomogeneous wave that cannot propagate. For an inhomogeneous P or S plane wave the particle motion is elliptical, the velocity is less than that of a corresponding homogeneous wave, the maximum attenuation is greater than that of a corresponding homogeneous wave, and the direction of maximum energy flow is not the direction of phase propagation. Expressions for the energy flux, energy densities, dissipated energy, stored energy, and Q −1 are derived from an explicit energy conservation relation, valid for an arbitrary steady state viscoelastic radiation field. Each energy expression is valid for homogeneous or inhomogeneous P or S plane waves in elastic or linear anelastic media.

Journal of Geophysical Research↗

USGS1993

Energy budget for yearling lake trout, Salvelinus namaycush

Components of the energy budget of yearling lake trout ( Salvelinus namacush ) were derived from data gathered in laboratory growth and metabolism studies; values for energy lost as waste were estimated with previously published equations. Because the total caloric value of food consumed by experimental lake trout was significantly different during the two years in which the studies were done, separate annual energy budgets were formulated. The gross conversion efficiency in yearling lake trout fed ad libitum rations of alewives at 10°C was 26.6% to 41%. The distribution of energy with temperature was similar for each component of the energy budget. Highest conversion efficiencies were observed in fish fed less than ad libitum rations; fish fed an amount of food equivalent to about 4% of their body weight at 10°C had a conversion efficiency of 33% to 45.1%. Physiologically useful energy was 76.1–80.1% of the total energy consumed. Estimated growth for age-I and -II lake fish was near that observed for laboratory fish held at lake temperatures and fed reduced rations.

Journal of Freshwater Ecology↗

USGS2020

Wind, sun, and wildlife: Do wind and solar energy development “short-circuit” conservation in the western United States?

Despite the trade-offs between renewable energy development, land use, humans, and wildlife, wind and solar development continues to transform the southwestern US into a green energy landscape. While renewable energy reduces carbon emissions and reliance on fossil fuels, many studies have emerged on the associated ecological and social impacts of this technology. Here, we review the current state of knowledge on the nexus between wildlife conservation and energy development in the western US since 2010. We revisit pertinent ecological concepts and questions presented in earlier reviews to assess how far the field has progressed in mitigating negative effects. Specifically, we ask, what density or design of development maximizes energy benefits while minimizing negative effects on wildlife, whether the results of previously-deficient before-after control-impact studies are now more readily-available, and ultimately, can the impacts of renewable energy development on wildlife be mitigated? We also provide a case study on the federally-protected Desert Tortoise, a conservation-reliant species in the Desert Southwest US, to highlight efforts to mitigate the negative effects of renewable energy development. Our review concludes that successful mitigation is possible via use of spatial decision support tools, applying novel wildlife deterrence and detection systems developed for existing installed facilities, and incorporating impact studies that provide managers with conservation metrics for evaluating different future development land-use scenarios.

Environmental Research Letters↗

USGS2010

Declines in deepwater sculpin Myoxocephalus thompsonii energy density associated with the disappearance of Diporeia spp. in lakes Huron and Michigan

The deepwater sculpin Myoxocephalus thompsonii is a glacial relict in the Laurentian Great Lakes that primarily consumes two glacial relict crustaceans, Mysis relicta and Diporeia spp. Deepwater sculpin were collected in Lake Michigan off Little Sable Point (in 2001) and Muskegon, Michigan (in 2001 and 2009), and in Lake Huron off Harbor Beach, Michigan (in 2007) for energy density and diet analyses. These sites and years represented differences in available prey. In Lake Michigan, energy densities of deepwater sculpin in 2001 were similar to those reported in 1969-1971. In contrast, energy content declined at least 26% at Muskegon between 2001 and 2009. Overall, energy density was 31-34% higher at a site with abundant Diporeia spp. compared with two sites without Diporeia spp. Deepwater sculpin diets consisted primarily of M. relicta at all sites, but included 10-17% (dry mass) Diporeia spp. at sites where this crustacean was still abundant. Food biomass in stomachs was higher at sites with abundant Diporeia spp. than at those without Diporeia spp. Deepwater sculpin energy density and food biomass in stomachs were similar between two sites without Diporeia spp. despite differences in abundance of remaining prey, M. relicta. Declines in deepwater sculpin energy density suggest the potential for further effects on other species and changes in the flow of energy through the food web of the Great Lakes. Published 2010. This article is a US Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Ecology of Freshwater Fish↗

USGS1994

Energy density and size of pelagic prey fishes in Lake Ontario, 1978-1990: Implications for salmonine energetics

We describe dynamics of energy density and size of Lake Ontario alewife Alosa pseudoharengus and rainbow smelt Osmerus mordax , and we use a bioenergetics model of a common pelagic piscivore, chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha , to demonstrate the effect of these factors on piscivore daily ration during 1978–1990. The energy density of alewives varied more than twofold between peaks in September (age 1) or October–November (age ≥2) and the lows in May (age 1) or July–September (age≥2). The previously described seasonal pattern of energy density of Lake Michigan alewives was similar except that energy density of older alewives (age≥3) was markedly higher in Lake Michigan. During 1978–1990, the spring energy density of Lake Ontario alewives peaked in 1979 (6,259 J/g wet weight), declined irregularly until 1985, and then remained stable through 1990 (at approximately 4,600 J/g). The initial decline may have been a density-dependent response to a burgeoning alewife population, but the lack of an increase in alewife condition in the late 1980s, when alewife biomass fell, suggests a decline in lake productivity. Energy density of rainbow smelt increased with age in Lake Ontario and condition was invariant during 1978–1990 despite a threefold change in rainbow smelt biomass. Rainbow smelt energy density was lower and fluctuated less seasonally in Lake Ontario than in Lake Michigan. Mean weight of alewives aged 2 and older dropped from 41 g in 1978 to 19 g in 1989 in Lake Ontario. Rainbow smelt aged 2 and older showed a drop in mean weight from 13–17 g in 1978–1982 to 8 g in 1990. This downward trend in mean size of alewives was correlated with the sizes of alewives consumed by Lake Ontario chinook salmon during 1983–1987. For adult chinook salmon to maintain a constant growth rate during 1978–1990, mean individual daily ration during June–October had to increase from a low of 2.2% body weight/d (or 1.5 prey fish/d) in 1979 to 3.1% body weight/d (3.7 prey fish/d) in 1988. This increase in forage demand may have caused the observed declines in individual condition of salmonines over this period.

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society↗

USGS1985

Altered energy metabolism in an irradiated population of lizards at the Nevada Test Site

Field metabolic rates (via doubly labeled water), body compartmentalization of energy stores, and energy assimilation efficiencies were measured to assess all avenues of energy utilization in Uta stansburiana living in a low-level γ-irradiated plot in Rock Valley, Nevada. Comparison of energy budgets for radiation-sterilized females with those of nonirradiated control lizards revealed several substantial differences. Sterile females were heavier, mainly because they had extraordinarily large energy (fat) storage depots. Sterile females had much lower rates of energy expenditure via respiration and lower rates of energy intake by feeding. These differences are interpreted as indirect responses to radiation-induced sterility. Gastrointestinal tract function in sterile females was normal. There is little evidence of direct radiation effects on physiological functions other than reproduction.

Radiation Research↗

USGS2019

U.S. Geological Survey energy and wildlife research annual report for 2019

Access to affordable and reliable energy remains a critical need for people and the economy. To satisfy society’s demand for energy, the United States is expanding access to vast natural resources to produce electricity as well as petroleum and natural gas products. Development of our Nation’s energy resources, however, often conflicts directly with the equally vast fish and wildlife resources, which contribute billions of dollars to the economy through harvest, recreation, and services to humans and agriculture. The effects of energy development on living resources include fragmentation of populations, degradation or loss of habitat, and mortality of birds, bats, fish, and other wildlife interacting with energy generation facilities. Thus, an expanding energy infrastructure results in new requirements for land and ocean conversion for project siting and operational decisions to minimize risk to fish and wildlife resources. U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) scientists partner with more than 150 Federal, State, and local government agencies; Tribal nations; academic institutions; and nongovernmental organizations to deliver timely and relevant information on pressing resource management issues. This report summarizes ongoing USGS research projects and publications related to the impacts of energy development on fish and wildlife resources, tools to assess those impacts, and solutions to avoid or minimize risk. This information helps decision makers balance development with stewardship of the Nation’s fish and wildlife heritage.

Circular↗

USGS1974

Water demands for expanding energy development

Water is used in producing energy for mining and reclamation of mined lands, onsite processing, transportation, refining, and conversion of fuels to other forms of energy. In the East, South, Midwest, and along the seacoasts, most water problems are related to pollution rather than to water supply. West of about the 100th meridian, however, runoff is generally less than potential diversions, and energy industries must compete with other water users. Water demands for extraction of coal, oil shale, uranium, and oil and gas are modest, although large quantities of water are used in secondary recovery operations for oil. The only significant use of water for energy transportation, aside from in-stream navigation use, is for slurry lines. Substantial quantities of water are required in the retorting and the disposal of spent oil shale. The conversion of coal to synthetic gas or oil or to electric power and the generation of electric power with nuclear energy require large quantities of water, mostly for cooling. Withdrawals for cooling of thermal-electric plants is by far the largest category of water use in energy industry, totaling about 170 billion gallons (644 million m3) per day in 1970. Water availability will dictate the location and design of energy-conversion facilities, especially in water deficient areas of the West.

Circular↗

USGS2010

Health effects of energy resources

Energy resources (coal, oil, and natural gas) are among the cornerstones of modern industrial society. The exploitation of these resources, however, is not without costs. Energy materials may contain harmful chemical substances that, if mobilized into air, water, or soil, can adversely impact human health and environmental quality. In order to address the issue of human exposure to toxic substances derived from energy resources, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Energy Resources Program developed a project entitled 'Impacts of Energy Resources on Human Health and Environmental Quality.' The project is intended to provide policymakers and the public with the scientific information needed to weigh the human health and environmental consequences of meeting our energy needs. This fact sheet discusses several areas where the USGS Energy Resources Program is making scientific advances in this endeavor.

Fact Sheet↗

USGS2020

The 3D Elevation Program and energy for the Nation

High-resolution light detection and ranging (lidar) data are used in energy infrastructure siting, design, permitting, construction, and monitoring to promote public safety through the reduction of risks. For example, lidar data are used to identify safe locations for energy infrastructure by analyzing terrain parameters and identifying and evaluating geologic hazards (for example, landslide and fault locations) and their potential public safety effects on the location or design of infrastructure. Increasingly, engineering companies and regulatory agencies are using lidar and other remote sensing techniques as an efficient method to collect accurate, comprehensive data while reducing risks to field personnel. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 3D Elevation Program (3DEP) is collecting lidar data nationwide (interferometric synthetic aperture radar [IfSAR] data in Alaska) to support a wide range of applications, including projects related to energy infrastructure construction and safety. Renewable energy resources, resource mining, and oil and gas resources were identified by the National Enhanced Elevation Assessment as business uses requiring three-dimensional (3D) elevation data. Elevation data are critical in assessing potential sites for energy infrastructure, such as pipelines, refineries and other facilities, to mitigate risks from natural hazards. For example, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), an independent agency that regulates the interstate transmission of electricity, natural gas, and oil, uses enhanced elevation data to conduct National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) compliance assessments. The acquisition of high-resolution lidar data by the USGS 3DEP initiative helps the FERC and NEPA permit applicants by providing accurate and consistent data for hazards analysis. The use of these data accelerates the application and review process and avoids the much higher costs of acquiring elevation data along proposed energy facility locations and pipeline corridors.

Fact Sheet↗

USGS2022

Balancing future renewable energy infrastructure siting and associated habitat loss for migrating whooping cranes

The expansion of human infrastructure has contributed to novel risks and disturbance regimes in most ecosystems, leading to considerable uncertainty about how species will respond to altered landscapes. A recent assessment revealed that whooping cranes ( Grus americana ), an endangered migratory waterbird species, avoid wind-energy infrastructure during migration. However, uncertainties regarding collective impacts of other types of human infrastructure, such as power lines on migration, variable drought conditions, and continued construction of wind energy infrastructure may compromise ongoing recovery efforts for whooping cranes. Droughts are increasing in frequency and severity throughout the whooping crane migration corridor, and the impacts of drought on stopover habitat use are largely unknown. Moreover, decision-based analyses are increasingly advocated to guide recovery planning for endangered species, yet applications remain rare. Using GPS locations from 57 whooping cranes from 2010 through 2016 in the United States Great Plains, we assessed habitat selection and avoidance of potential disturbances during migration relative to drought conditions, and we used these results in an optimization analysis to select potential sites for new wind energy developments that minimize relative habitat loss for whooping cranes and maximize wind energy potential. Drought occurrence and severity varied spatially and temporally across the migration corridor during our study period. Whooping cranes rarely used areas <5 km from human settlements and wind energy infrastructure under both drought and non-drought conditions, and <2 km from power lines during non-drought conditions, with the lowest likelihood of use near wind energy infrastructure. Whooping cranes differed in their selection of wetland and cropland land cover types depending on drought or non-drought conditions. We identified scenarios for wind energy expansion across the migration corridor and in select states, which are robust to uncertain drought conditions, where future loss of highly selected stopover habitats could be minimized under a common strategy. Our approach was to estimate functional habitat loss while integrating current disturbances, potential future disturbances, and uncertainty in drought conditions. Therefore, dynamic models describing potential costs associated with risk-averse behaviors resulting from future developments can inform proactive conservation before population impacts occur.

Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dak↗

USGS2014

Environmental impacts of utility-scale solar energy

Renewable energy is a promising alternative to fossil fuel-based energy, but its development can require a complex set of environmental tradeoffs. A recent increase in solar energy systems, especially large, centralized installations, underscores the urgency of understanding their environmental interactions. Synthesizing literature across numerous disciplines, we review direct and indirect environmental impacts – both beneficial and adverse – of utility-scale solar energy (USSE) development, including impacts on biodiversity, land-use and land-cover change, soils, water resources, and human health. Additionally, we review feedbacks between USSE infrastructure and land-atmosphere interactions and the potential for USSE systems to mitigate climate change. Several characteristics and development strategies of USSE systems have low environmental impacts relative to other energy systems, including other renewables. We show opportunities to increase USSE environmental co-benefits, the permitting and regulatory constraints and opportunities of USSE, and highlight future research directions to better understand the nexus between USSE and the environment. Increasing the environmental compatibility of USSE systems will maximize the efficacy of this key renewable energy source in mitigating climatic and global environmental change.

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews↗

USGS2020

Learning from real-world experience to understand renewable energy impacts to wildlife

The project team sought to use real-world data to understand adverse effects to wildlife of renewable energy production that is critical to meeting California’s climate and clean energy goals. The project had three main components. First, a systematic literature review studied 20 peer-reviewed publications and 612 reports from other nonreviewed sources from 231 wind and solar facilities in North America. Within California, 50 percent of facilities collected pre- and post-construction data, 30 percent had experimental study designs, and fewer than 7 percent estimated detection probability during habitat use surveys. Mitigation at wind power plants focused on repowering to reduce risk to soaring birds and at solar facilities emphasized wildlife deterrence and compensatory mitigation. Second, the authors developed a best-practices approach to employ environmental isotopes (for example, hydrogen obtained from animal tissue) and rescaling functions (a statistical approach to modeling the relationship between variables) to assign individual birds or bats to their place of origin. The team applied this approach to feathers from 411 individuals of 12 species killed at wind facilities and 515 individuals of 19 species killed at solar facilities. From 24 percent to 100 percent (mean +/- SD = 49 percent +/- 33 percent) and 25 percent to 100 percent (73 percent +/- 25 percent) of birds grew feathers at a location outside the collection site at wind and solar facilities, respectively. Third, the authors constructed Bayesian integrated population models (probability models) for 29 focal species affected by wind or solar energy generation in California. Species predominantly local in origin generally had lower population growth rates than did species that were predominantly nonlocal in origin. These patterns illustrate the complex linkages between behavioral ecology, vulnerability to mortality, and population-level impacts to wildlife from fatalities at renewable energy facilities. This project benefits the renewable energy sector by providing a framework and specific tools for understanding environmental impacts of renewable energy generation.

California↗