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At least 91 records · Page 5Linked to original sources
USGS2021

Using expert knowledge to support Endangered Species Act decision‐making for data‐deficient species

Many questions relevant to conservation decision making are characterized by extreme uncertainty due to lack of empirical data and complexity of the underlying ecological processes, leading to a rapid increase in the use of structured protocols to elicit expert knowledge. Published ecological applications often employ a modified Delphi method, where experts provide judgments anonymously and mathematical aggregation techniques are used to combine judgments. The Sheffield Elicitation Framework (SHELF) differs in its behavioral approach to synthesizing individual judgments into a fully specified probability distribution for an unknown quantity. This study demonstrates the remote use of the SHELF protocol for an extinction risk assessment of three subterranean aquatic species petitioned for listing under the US Endangered Species Act. Experts were provided an empirical threat assessment for each known locality using video conferencing and asked for judgments on the probability of population persistence over four generations using online submission forms and R‐shiny apps available through the SHELF package. Despite large uncertainty for all populations, results reveal key differences between species’ risk of extirpation based on spatial variation in dominant threats, local land use and management practices, and microhabitat use. The resulting probability distributions provide decision makers with a full picture of uncertainty that is consistent with the probabilistic nature of risk assessments, and discussions during the behavioral aggregation stage clearly document dominant threats (e.g., development, timber harvest, animal agriculture, and cave visitation) and their interactions with local cave geology and species’ habitat preferences. Our virtual implementation of the SHELF protocol demonstrates the flexibility of this approach for conservation applications operating on budgets and timelines that can limit in‐person meetings of geographically dispersed experts.

Conservation Biology↗
USGS2024

Mechanisms by which marine heatwaves impact seabirds

Marine heatwaves (MHWs) are characterized by periods of extreme warming of local to basin-scale marine habitat. Effects of MHWs on some seabirds (e.g. mass die-offs) are well documented, but mechanisms by which seabirds respond to MHWs remain poorly understood. Following from a symposium at the 3 rd World Seabird Conference, this Theme Section presents recent research to address this knowledge gap. Studies included here spanned one or more MHW event, at spatial scales from individual seabird colonies to large marine ecosystems in subtropical, temperate, and polar oceans, and over timespans from months to decades. The findings summarized herein indicate that MHWs can affect seabirds directly by creating physiological heat stress that affects behavior or survival, or indirectly by disrupting seabird food webs, largely by altering metabolic rates in ectothermic prey species, leading to effects on their associated predators and prey. Four main mechanisms by which MHWs affect seabirds are (1) habitat modification, (2) physiological forcing, (3) behavioral responses, and (4) ecological processes or species interactions. Most seabird species have experienced limited effects from MHWs to date, owing to ecological and behavioral adaptations that buffer MHW effects. However, the intensity and frequency of MHWs is increasing due to global warming, and more seabird species may have difficulty coping with future heatwave events. Also, MHW impacts can persist for years after a MHW ends, so consequences of recent or future MHWs could continue to unfold over time for many long-lived seabird species.

MEPS↗
USGS2026

An overview and participatory framework for choosing spatial boundaries in social–ecological systems modeling

A common challenge when modeling social–ecological systems (SESs) is defining the spatial extent of the system. Boundaries that do not adequately capture both social and ecological processes and their interactions can lead to mischaracterization of the system, while expanding boundaries too widely can impact model complexity and required resources. Socially, boundaries can invoke and influence identity, culture, power, and sense of place. Boundary decisions benefit from flexible, iterative approaches and the expertise of local communities. Here, we use a structured database search supplemented with citation searching to identify and review the literature that addresses choosing or defining spatial boundaries in SESs mapping or modeling and, when applicable, how participatory methods were used in the research process. In a review of the resulting 79 studies, we discovered that pre-existing social or ecological boundaries were used most frequently (36 and 18 publications, respectively). Twenty-one publications combined social and ecological boundaries or data to create custom boundaries, and four studies used an alternative approach to conventional boundaries. Informed by the literature review, we present a general framework for defining boundaries at the outset of SES research. We then connect the framework to a specific case study based on a collaborative project with Tribal, university, and federal scientists to develop a social–ecological climate adaptation plan. We present guiding questions alongside candidate boundaries for our study system and explore the tradeoffs of these boundary options, which can function as a useful template for other social–ecological research collaborations.

ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information↗
USGS2024

Ecological function maintained despite mesomammal declines

Mid-sized mammals (i.e., mesomammals) fulfill important ecological roles, serving as essential scavengers, predators, pollinators, and seed dispersers in the ecosystems they inhabit. Consequently, declines in mesomammal populations have the potential to alter ecological processes and fundamentally change ecosystems. However, ecosystems characterized by high functional redundancy, where multiple species can fulfil similar ecological roles, may be less impacted by the loss of mesomammals and other vertebrates. The Greater Everglades Ecosystem in southern Florida is a historically biodiverse region that has recently been impacted by multiple anthropogenic threats, most notably the introduction of the Burmese python ( Python molurus bivittatus ) . Since pythons became established, mesomammal populations have become greatly reduced. To assess whether these declines in mesomammals have affected two critical ecosystem functions—scavenging and frugivory—we conducted experiments in areas where mesomammals were present and absent. We did not observe significant differences in scavenging or frugivory efficiency in areas with and without mesomammals, but we did observe significant differences in the communities responsible for scavenging and frugivory. Despite the observed evidence of redundancy, the changes in community composition could potentially lead to indirect consequences on processes like seed dispersal and disease dynamics within this ecosystem, emphasizing the need for further study.

Florida↗
USGS2012

Factors associated with the severity of interacting fires in Yosemite National Park

In 1972, Yosemite National Park established a wilderness fire zone in which lightning fires were allowed to run their courses under prescribed conditions. This zone was expanded in 1973 to include the 16 209 ha Illilouette Creek basin, just to the southeast of Yosemite Valley. From 1973 through 2011, there have been 157 fires in the basin. Fire severity data were collected on all 28 of those fires that were larger than 40 ha. The proportion burned in each fire severity class was not significantly associated with fire return interval departure class. When areas were reburned, the proportion of unchanged severity fire decreased while the proportion of high severity fire increased. The proportion of fire severity of the subsequent fires was associated with the number of years since last burned, the burning index, and the severity of the previous fires. The main effects were significant for unchanged severity and low severity, and the interaction between return interval class and burning index class was significant for high severity. Most vegetation types remained the same when burned with unchanged, low, or moderate severity, while high severity often resulted in conversion to montane chaparral. The factors that were associated with reburn severity worked in combination with each factor influencing some aspect of severity. Managers and scientists can use this information to better understand the role fire plays in these ecosystems and how to best manage this dynamic ecological process.

California↗
USGS2016

Applications of genetic data to improve management and conservation of river fishes and their habitats

Environmental variation and landscape features affect ecological processes in fluvial systems; however, assessing effects at management-relevant temporal and spatial scales is challenging. Genetic data can be used with landscape models and traditional ecological assessment data to identify biodiversity hotspots, predict ecosystem responses to anthropogenic effects, and detect impairments to underlying processes. We show that by combining taxonomic, demographic, and genetic data of species in complex riverscapes, managers can better understand the spatial and temporal scales over which environmental processes and disturbance influence biodiversity. We describe how population genetic models using empirical or simulated genetic data quantify effects of environmental processes affecting species diversity and distribution. Our summary shows that aquatic assessment initiatives that use standardized data sets to direct management actions can benefit from integration of genetic data to improve the predictability of disturbance–response relationships of river fishes and their habitats over a broad range of spatial and temporal scales.

Fisheries↗
USGS2026

Spatially realistic dynamic N-mixture models

Dispersal is a complex ecological process that can be driven by the abiotic environment, density-dependent processes and species mobility. Traditionally, dispersal has been studied with capture-based data that are often limited in space and time. More recently, spatial dynamic N-mixture models (i.e. N-mixture models accounting for dispersal among local populations and changes in abundance over time) allow the study of dispersal with count data. However, current spatial dynamic N-mixture models focus mainly on distance-based dispersal, limiting our ability to evaluate realistic patterns and drivers of dispersal at relevant spatial and temporal scales. We developed a spatially realistic dynamic N-mixture model that allows dispersal to be driven by environmental conditions and population density. Using simulations, we evaluated the inferential performance of this model when large proportions of sites are unsurveyed and the survey period is short, situations that are typical of real-world studies. We then used two case studies to illustrate the applications of this model, one representing a species with limited mobility in fragmented habitat (Chiricahua Leopard Frogs, Lithobates chiricahuensis , in isolated ponds) and the other representing a species with great mobility in continuous heterogeneous habitat (Common Nighthawks, Chordeiles minor , in grasslands). Our simulation study showed that the model provides valid inference even when the number of surveyed sites is small (𝑛 =10) or when the survey period is short for dynamic models (5 years), indicating that the model could have great practical value in real-world studies. The case study of Chiricahua Leopard Frogs showed that the model is capable of revealing pond-type-specific dispersal and predicting dispersal among ponds. The case study of Common Nighthawks showed the ability of the model to reveal the effect of primary productivity on dispersal and to map dispersal across the study area. Our effort demonstrates the potential of using count data to gain insights about complex yet realistic dispersal processes. The model that we introduce is flexible and adaptable for a broad range of situations in population and conservation ecology

Arizona, Kansas↗
USGS2011

Twenty Years After the 1988 Yellowstone Fires: Lessons About Disturbance and Ecosystems

The 1988 Yellowstone fires were among the first in what has proven to be an upsurge in large severe fires in the western USA during the past 20 years. At the time of the fires, little was known about the impacts of such a large severe disturbance because scientists had had few previous opportunities to study such an event. Ecologists predicted short- and long-term effects of the 1988 fires on vegetation, biogeochemistry, primary productivity, wildlife, and aquatic ecosystems based on scientific understanding of the time. Twenty-plus years of subsequent study allow these early predictions to be evaluated. Most of the original predictions were at least partially supported, but some predictions were refuted, others nuanced, and a few postfire phenomena were entirely unexpected. Post-1988 Yellowstone studies catalyzed advances in ecology focused on the importance of spatial and temporal heterogeneity, contingent influences, and multiple interacting drivers. Post-1988 research in Yellowstone also has changed public perceptions of fire as an ecological process and attitudes towards fire management. Looking ahead to projected climate change and more frequent large fires, the well-documented ecological responses to the 1988 Yellowstone fires provide a foundation for detecting and evaluating potential changes in fire regimes of temperate mountainous regions. ?? 2011 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.

Ecosystems↗
USGS2020

Practices of biological soil crust rehabilitation in China: Experiences and challenges

Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) are a central component of dryland ecosystems. However, they are highly vulnerable to disturbance and natural recovery may be slow. Therefore, finding ways to enhance the reestablishment of biocrusts after disturbance has been of great interest to researchers. This article provides a review of the laboratory cultivation and field inoculations of biocrust materials in China (mostly published in Chinese). Larger filamentous cyanobacteria (e.g. Microcoleus ) are relatively easy, although slow, to grow in culture compared to other biocrust components. Thus, most researchers have focused their efforts on the cyanobacteria and a few species of mosses that are also easily grown but at smaller scale. For all the studies, a small amount of biocrust material was collected and its biomass enhanced under controlled conditions. However, the enhancement was done using various methods and techniques in different regions. These materials were then applied to disturbed field sites, again with various methods. Results show that keeping the inoculated soil surface wet for some time period after inoculation was crucial for restoration success. Cyanobacterial establishment was improved by installing automatic sprinkling using micro‐irrigation techniques and/or physical structures that reduced sediment moving onto the inoculated area. Experimental applications in China showed that cyanobacteria can be successfully inoculated at a large scale (hundreds of ha). Moss inoculation, on the other hand, was only accomplished at a small scale (several m 2 ). To assess whether biocrust restoration can enhance the establishment of a self‐supporting ecosystem, further research is needed on how inoculation affects vegetation diversity and structure and ecological processes.

Restoration Ecology↗
USGS2022

Influence of offshore oil and gas structures on seascape ecological connectivity

Offshore platforms, subsea pipelines, wells and related fixed structures supporting the oil and gas (O&G) industry are prevalent in oceans across the globe, with many approaching the end of their operational life and requiring decommissioning. Although structures can possess high ecological diversity and productivity, information on how they interact with broader ecological processes remains unclear. Here, we review the current state of knowledge on the role of O&G infrastructure in maintaining, altering or enhancing ecological connectivity with natural marine habitats. There is a paucity of studies on the subject with only 33 papers specifically targeting connectivity and O&G structures, although other studies provide important related information. Evidence for O&G structures facilitating vertical and horizontal seascape connectivity exists for larvae and mobile adult invertebrates, fish and megafauna; including threatened and commercially important species. The degree to which these structures represent a beneficial or detrimental net impact remains unclear, is complex and ultimately needs more research to determine the extent to which natural connectivity networks are conserved, enhanced or disrupted. We discuss the potential impacts of different decommissioning approaches on seascape connectivity and identify, through expert elicitation, critical knowledge gaps that, if addressed, may further inform decision making for the life cycle of O&G infrastructure, with relevance for other industries (e.g. renewables). The most highly ranked critical knowledge gap was a need to understand how O&G structures modify and influence the movement patterns of mobile species and dispersal stages of sessile marine species. Understanding how different decommissioning options affect species survival and movement was also highly ranked, as was understanding the extent to which O&G structures contribute to extending species distributions by providing rest stops, foraging habitat, and stepping stones. These questions could be addressed with further dedicated studies of animal movement in relation to structures using telemetry, molecular techniques and movement models. Our review and these priority questions provide a roadmap for advancing research needed to support evidence-based decision making for decommissioning O&G infrastructure.

Global Change Biology↗
USGS2015

A quantitative framework for estimating risk of collision between marine mammals and boats

Speed regulations of watercraft in protected areas are designed to reduce lethal collisions with wildlife but can have economic consequences. We present a quantitative framework for investigating the risk of deadly collisions between boats and wildlife. We apply encounter rate theory to demonstrate how marine mammal-boat encounter rate can be used to predict the expected number of deaths associated with management scenarios. We illustrate our approach with management scenarios for two endangered species: the Florida manatee Trichechus manatus latirostris and the North Atlantic right whale Eubalaena glacialis . We used a Monte Carlo simulation approach to demonstrate the uncertainty that is associated with our estimate of relative mortality. We show that encounter rate increased with vessel speed but that the expected number of encounters varies depending on the boating activities considered. For instance, in a scenario involving manatees and boating activities such as water skiing, the expected number of encounters in a given area (in a fixed time interval) increased with vessel speed. In another scenario in which a vessel made a transit of fixed length the expected number of encounters decreases slightly with boat speed. In both cases the expected number of encounters increased with distanced travelled by the boat. For whales, we found a slight reduction (~0.1%) in the number of encounters under a scenario where speed is unregulated; this reduction, however, is negligible, and overall expected relative mortality was ~30% lower under the scenario with speed regulation. The probability of avoidance by the animal or vessel was set to 0 because of lack of data, but we explored the importance of this parameter on the model predictions. In fact, expected relative mortality under speed regulations decreases even further when the probability of avoidance is a decreasing function of vessel speed. By applying encounter rate theory to the case of boat collisions with marine mammals, we gained new insights about encounter processes between wildlife and watercraft. Our work emphasizes the importance of considering uncertainty when estimating wildlife mortality. Finally, our findings are relevant to other systems and ecological processes involving the encounter between moving agents.

Methods in Ecology and Evolution↗
USGS2023

Dynamic population models with temporal preferential sampling to infer phenology

To study population dynamics, ecologists and wildlife biologists typically use relative abundance data, which may be subject to temporal preferential sampling. Temporal preferential sampling occurs when the times at which observations are made and the latent process of interest are conditionally dependent. To account for preferential sampling, we specify a Bayesian hierarchical abundance model that considers the dependence between observation times and the ecological process of interest. The proposed model improves relative abundance estimates during periods of infrequent observation and accounts for temporal preferential sampling in discrete time. Additionally, our model facilitates posterior inference for population growth rates and mechanistic phenometrics. We apply our model to analyze both simulated data and mosquito count data collected by the National Ecological Observatory Network. In the second case study, we characterize the population growth rate and relative abundance of several mosquito species in the Aedes genus. Supplementary materials accompanying this paper appear on-line.

Journal of Agricultural, Biological, and Environme↗
USGS2003

Application of ecological criteria in selecting marine reserves and developing reserve networks

Marine reserves are being established worldwide in response to a growing recognition of the conservation crisis that is building in the oceans. However, designation of reserves has been largely opportunistic, or protective measures have been implemented (often overlapping and sometimes in conflict) by different entities seeking to achieve different ends. This has created confusion among both users and enforcers, and the proliferation of different measures provides a false sense of protection where little is offered. This paper sets out a procedure grounded in current understanding of ecological processes, that allows the evaluation and selection of reserve sites in order to develop functional, interconnected networks of fully protected reserves that will fulfill multiple objectives. By fully protected we mean permanently closed to fishing and other resource extraction. We provide a framework that unifies the central aims of conservation and fishery management, while also meeting other human needs such as the provision of ecosystem services (e.g., maintenance of coastal water quality, shoreline protection, and recreational opportunities). In our scheme, candidate sites for reserves are evaluated against 12 criteria focused toward sustaining the biological integrity and productivity of marine systems at both local and regional scales. While a limited number of sites will be indispensable in a network, many will be of similar value as reserves, allowing the design of numerous alternative, biologically adequate networks. Devising multiple network designs will help ensure that ecological functionality is preserved throughout the socioeconomic evaluation process. Too often, socioeconomic criteria have dominated the process of reserve selection, potentially undermining their efficacy. We argue that application of biological criteria must precede and inform socioeconomic evaluation, since maintenance of ecosystem functioning is essential for meeting all of the goals for reserves. It is critical that stakeholders are fully involved throughout this process. Application of the proposed criteria will lead to networks whose multifunctionality will help unite the objectives of different management entities, so accelerating progress toward improved stewardship of the oceans.

Ecological Applications↗
USGS2025

Mapping predicted ecological states at landscape scales using remote sensing data and machine learning

Dryland ecosystems, covering 45% of the Earth's land and supporting over one-third of the global population, face significant threats from land degradation and ecological state change. Managing these ecosystems is complex, and science-based frameworks like Ecological Site Descriptions and state-and-transition models are essential tools for guiding decisions to support ecological health while maintaining stakeholder values such as grazing, wildlife, and recreation. However, alignment of these frameworks with smaller scale soil survey maps limits their applicability to broader ecological processes. Here, we extend these frameworks to larger landscapes with a machine learning approach that integrates large-scale, high-resolution vegetation data with identified ecological states from a data-driven state-and-transition model developed for a landscape-scale Ecological Site Group. A “global” model, which used combined inputs from multiple remotely sensed datasets, outperformed individual dataset models based on evaluation with independent data. Ecological state maps generated through this approach broaden the utility of state-and-transition models across Ecological Site Groups, providing a more spatially robust tool for land management at watershed and larger landscape scales. These methods, and the associated ecological state maps, can help meet critical needs for improved land condition assessments that support development of resource management plans and help identify priority areas for restoration and conservation.

Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming↗
USGS2006

Mountain hydrology of the western United States

Climate change and climate variability, population growth, and land use change drive the need for new hydrologic knowledge and understanding. In the mountainous West and other similar areas worldwide, three pressing hydrologic needs stand out: first, to better understand the processes controlling the partitioning of energy and water fluxes within and out from these systems; second, to better understand feedbacks between hydrological fluxes and biogeochemical and ecological processes; and, third, to enhance our physical and empirical understanding with integrated measurement strategies and information systems. We envision an integrative approach to monitoring, modeling, and sensing the mountain environment that will improve understanding and prediction of hydrologic fluxes and processes. Here extensive monitoring of energy fluxes and hydrologic states are needed to supplement existing measurements, which are largely limited to streamflow and snow water equivalent. Ground‐based observing systems must be explicitly designed for integration with remotely sensed data and for scaling up to basins and whole ranges.

Water Resources Research↗
USGS2026

Captivity may broadly impede bison ecological function: Space, season, and management

American bison ( Bos bison ) were spared from numerical extinction but considered to be ecologically extinct, partially due to spatial restrictions in their former range. A key component of the ecological function of bison is their ability to adjust their spatial behaviors at multiple scales to match the seasonal distributions and availability of resources. To understand how management influences the amount and seasonality of space bison use at various scales, we estimated home range using autocorrelated kernel density estimators (95% utilization distribution) and foraging patch size by the maximum variance in first-passage time at four temporal scales (annual, growing, nongrowing, and focal seasons) for two free-ranging and three captive bison herds. The seasonal differences in space-use within management regimes and study areas were treated as nonparametric related measures while differences amongst management regimes and study areas were treated as nonparametric independent measures. Seasonal variations in space-use were detected in both management regimes, but only free-range bison depicted this pattern at the larger home range scale (p < 0.001). Free-range bison had significantly larger home ranges across seasons compared to captive bison (p < 0.001), but captive bison had larger foraging patch sizes during the growing season than free-range bison. Study areas with captive bison did not differ in their amount of space-use at any scale or season (p > 0.05). The strongest differences were apparent among study herds in annual home range size (p < 0.001) and growing season foraging patch size (p < 0.001). Our results demonstrate that captivity likely prevents bison from using their available landscape seasonally at broad scales, which could have ecological consequences for this historically nomadic herbivore. Although sociopolitical realities prevent bison restoration at a continental scale, increasing the amount of space available to bison where possible has the potential to replicate previous ecological processes. Further research can evaluate the influence of local environmental conditions on seasonality of bison space-use and can assess effects of scale on the ecological impacts of bison.

Colorado, Montana, Texas, Utah↗
USGS2025

Establishing historical baselines of arthropod assemblages using rodent paleomiddens

Aim Arthropods are under-represented in paleoecological studies but are critical agents in ecological processes. Despite rigorous documentation of diverse arthropod assemblages from ancient rodent (or paleo) middens worldwide, their use for studying ancient arthropod diversity has stalled in recent decades. Here, we review published studies to identify how paleomidden arthropods can be leveraged to address significant questions in ecology and synthesise spatiotemporal trends in ancient arthropod diversity. Location Global with a focus on the Americas. Time Period From ~40,000 to 100 years before present. Major Taxa Studied Fossil arthropods preserved in rodent paleomiddens. Methods We identified four primary objectives in ecology that can be advanced using paleomidden arthropod fossils: the reconstruction of ancient biodiversity, the elucidation of mechanisms and processes driving arthropod range shifts, the incorporation of arthropods into ancient trophic webs, and the assessment of adaptive responses to changing environments. Results We identified 20 papers reporting arthropod remains, of which 14 provided data suitable for quantitative analyses. Although no significant differences in arthropod community diversity were found across broad geographic regions, substantial differences in community structure were observed. In North America, we also detected a decline in arthropod diversity from 10 to 5 ka BP, driven primarily by the absence of high-diversity assemblages during this period. Main Conclusions Paleomidden arthropods remain an underutilised ecological resource that can be leveraged to improve the inferential scope of arthropod research across spatiotemporal gradients. Collaboration between paleo- and neoecologists could help expand the sampling of ancient and modern arthropod communities, particularly those associated with paleomiddens, to create high-resolution datasets spanning important periods in biogeographical history. Paleomidden arthropods will remain a fundamental component for understanding arthropod biodiversity changes in the past, present, and future.

Global Ecology and Biogeography↗
USGS2018

Increasing connectivity between metapopulation ecology and landscape ecology

Metapopulation ecology and landscape ecology aim to understand how spatial structure influences ecological processes, yet these disciplines address the problem using fundamentally different modeling approaches. Metapopulation models describe how the spatial distribution of patches affects colonization and extinction, but often do not account for the heterogeneity in the landscape between patches. Models in landscape ecology use detailed descriptions of landscape structure, but often without considering colonization and extinction dynamics. We present a novel spatially explicit modeling framework for narrowing the divide between these disciplines to advance understanding of the effects of landscape structure on metapopulation dynamics. Unlike previous efforts, this framework allows for statistical inference on landscape resistance to colonization using empirical data. We demonstrate the approach using 11 yr of data on a threatened amphibian in a desert ecosystem. Occupancy data for Lithobates chiricahuensis (Chiricahua leopard frog) were collected on the Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge (BANWR), Arizona, USA from 2007 to 2017 following a reintroduction in 2003. Results indicated that colonization dynamics were influenced by both patch characteristics and landscape structure. Landscape resistance increased with increasing elevation and distance to the nearest streambed. Colonization rate was also influenced by patch quality, with semi‐permanent and permanent ponds contributing substantially more to the colonization of neighboring ponds relative to intermittent ponds. Ponds that only hold water intermittently also had the highest extinction rate. Our modeling framework can be widely applied to understand metapopulation dynamics in complex landscapes, particularly in systems in which the environment between habitat patches influences the colonization process

Ecology↗