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At least 91 records · Page 5Linked to original sources

The possible role of sulfate-reduction kinetics in the formation of hydrothermal uranium deposits

Sulfate is known to be an active oxidizing agent at high temperatures; however, both experimental and geologic evidence indicate that as a hydrothermal solution cools (to about 200 degrees C, depending on pH) kinetic factors slow the rate at which sulfate enters into redox reactions. This retardation of sulfate reduction diminishes the effectiveness of sulfate as an oxidizing agent. Consequently, as cooling proceeds, the reducing effect of H 2 S (and other reduced species) is not balanced with the oxidizing effect of SO (super -2) 4 to the same extent as at higher temperatures. The result is a progressively more reducing solution, which is precisely what is needed to precipitate reduced uranium minerals and to generate the paragenetic sequence observed in these deposits. The same mechanism may apply to other types of epithermal deposits.

Economic Geology↗

Natural hazards research and response; international decade for reducing loss from natural disasters

Worldwide losses from natural disasters are increasing rapidly due to population growth, urban sprawl, and increasing concentration of new construction in high-risk areas. to deal with these problems, the United Nations has designated the 1990's as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). The United States and more than 150 other nations signed the IDNDR resolution at the 44th General Assembly of the United Nations. The resolution calls on all nations to develop programs to reduce loss of life, economic impact, and human suffering caused by natural disasters. IDNDR offers an unprecedented opportunity to apply new knowledge and technology to minimize losses in regions at high risks. The program is very challenging because full implementation requires a multidisciplinary effort on a global scale, an undertaking never before attempted. In concert with the other signatory nations, the Untied States is carrying out a balanced and comprehensive program of research and applications as a contribution to the IDNDR. The U.S program is designed to reduce both loss of life and property damage from natural disasters.

Earthquakes & Volcanoes (USGS)↗

Mass control of insects: The effects on fish and wildlife

The mass control of insects carried on during the past ten years has made possible the economical suppression and, in a few instances, the near eradication of pest insect populations over widespread areas. These large operations, usually featuring the use of the airplane for applying insecticides quickly and cheaply, have proven to be the means of effectuating control programs which never could have been carried on through use of the techniques and equipment of early-day economic entomology. With the development of the methods employed in modern mass control came the introduction of new toxicants, well-adapted for use against insects because of their potency, low cost and wide availability. The present-day entomologist is thus armed with the means to carry on a control task of almost any magnitude.

Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America↗

Multicriteria decision analysis applied to Glen Canyon Dam

Conflicts in water resources exist because river-reservoir systems are managed to optimize traditional benefits (e.g., hydropower and flood control), which are historically quantified in economic terms, whereas natural and environmental resources, including in-stream and riparian resources, are more difficult or impossible to quantify in economic terms. Multicriteria decision analysis provides a quantitative approach to evaluate resources subject to river basin management alternatives. This objective quantification method includes inputs from special interest groups, the general public, and concerned individuals, as well as professionals for each resource considered in a trade-off analysis. Multicriteria decision analysis is applied to resources and flow alternatives presented in the environmental impact statement for Glen Canyon Dam on the Colorado River. A numeric rating and priority-weighting scheme is used to evaluate 29 specific natural resource attributes, grouped into seven main resource objectives, for nine flow alternatives enumerated in the environmental impact statement.

Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management↗

Strategic restoration planning for land birds in the Colorado River Delta, Mexico

Ecological restoration is an essential strategy for mitigating the current biodiversity crisis, yet restoration actions are costly. We used systematic conservation planning principles to design an approach that prioritizes restoration sites for birds and tested it in a riparian forest restoration program in the Colorado River Delta. Restoration goals were to maximize the abundance and diversity of 15 priority birds with a variety of habitat preferences. We built abundance models for priority birds based on the current landscape, and predicted bird distributions and relative abundances under a scenario of complete riparian forest restoration throughout our study area. Then, we used Zonation conservation planning software to rank this restored landscape based on core areas for all priority birds. The locations with the highest ranks represented the highest priorities for restoration and were located throughout the river reach. We optimized how much of the available landscape to restore by simulating restoration of the top 10–90% of ranked sites in 10% intervals. We found that total diversity was maximized when 40% of the landscape was restored, and mean relative abundance was maximized when 80% of the landscape was restored. The results suggest that complete restoration is not optimal for this community of priority birds and restoration of approximately 60% of the landscape would provide a balance between maximum relative abundance and diversity. Subsequent planning efforts will combine our results with an assessment of restoration costs to provide further decision support for the restoration-siting process. Our approach can be applied to any landscape-scale restoration program to improve the return on investment of limited economic resources for restoration.

Colorado River Delta↗

Well logging in ground‐water hydrology

In 1966 more than 50 billion gallons of water was pumped daily from an estimated 10 to 15 million water wells in the United States. This was more than one‐sixth of the national withdrawal of water . On the basis of past rates of increase, a much greater future use of ground water is suggested. Our annual investment in water wells is one‐half to three‐quarter billion dollars, not including pumps and plumbing. In 1964 approximately 436,000 new wells were drilled; however, less than 1 percent of these wells were logged by any geophysical means. The application of _ge_o.phy.sical well logging to ground‐water hydrology is comparable to its use in petroleum exploration in the 1930's; however, we can take advantage of equipment and interpretation techniques developed in the oil industry that are available now for use in ground‐water investigations. Although most petroleum well logging techniques may be utilized in hydrology ; modifications in equipment and interpretation are necessary because of basic economic and environmental differences between petroleum and ground‐water evaluation. If logging is to be widely applied to ground‐water exploration and evaluation, the expense of equipment and services must be reduced. Fortunately, this can be accomplished, because most water wells are not as deep as oil wells and the temperatures and pressures are lower. The Water Resources Division of the U. S. Geological Survey is conducting research on the application of borehole geophysics to ground‐water hydrology . The following logging devices are utilized in the evaluation of ground‐water environments: spontaneous potential, resistivity, gamma, gamma‐gamma, neutron, radioactive tracer, flowmeter, caliper, fluid resistivity, gradient and differential temperature, and sonic velocity. Lightweight logging sondes and control modules are operated by one man, either on a vehicle‐mounted 6,000‐foot logger or on a suitcase‐mounted 500‐foot logger. An inexpensive magnetic tape system has been developed and is used routinely for log recording and playback. If commercial well logging service is to be widely used in ground‐water exploration and development, water well contractors, and State and municipal agencies must be educated on the advantages of obtaining more information from each hole drilled. It will be necessary also to demonstrate how well logging can provide much of this information. In addition, the well logging industry must adapt their equipment and services to the requirements of ground‐water hydrology . The need for additional logging capability in this field exists at the present time and is expected to increase. Hopefully industry will be able to fill the gap.

Groundwater↗

Geochemical prospecting for soluble salts in Kuchakki hamun, Chagai District, Pakistan

The surface soil consisting of clay, silt, sand, and salt crust in Kuchakki hamun (dry lake) contains nitrates, sulfates, salts of boron, magnesium, and widely dispersed traces of potassium. No bromine or iodine salts were detected. Several hundred samples of soil were analyzed by spot-test methods, and the results were given comparative weighted-qualitative values. Isohaline-type geochemical maps, based on weighted-qualitative values, were prepared to show the dispersion patterns of boron, magnesium, potassium, nitrates, and sulfates in Kuchakki hamun. Boron and magnesium salts are concentrated in the southern and southeastern part of the hamun. Nitrates and sulfates are more widely distributed and have higher concentrations in the central area of Kuchakki hamun. More detailed qualitative work and quantitative studies on material collected in Kuchakki hamun are required to appraise the reliability of applied field methods and preliminary analytical data, and to determine the presence, abundance, and grade of economically important salts.

Chagai District↗

Relating results from earthworm toxicity tests to agricultural soil

The artificial soil tests of the European Economic Community and of the Organization for Economic Cooperation produce data relating earthworm mortality to pesticide concentrations in soil under laboratory conditions. To apply these results to agricultural soils it is necessary to relate these concentrations to amounts of pesticide applied per area. This paper reviews the relevant published literature and suggests a simple relation for regulatory use. Hazards to earthworms from pesticides are suggested to be greatest soon after application, when the pesticides may be concentrated in a soil layer a few millimeters thick. For estimating exposure of earthworms, however, a thicker soil layer should be considered, to account for their movement through soil. During favorable weather conditions, earthworms belonging to species appropriate to the artificial soil test have been reported to confine their activity to a layer about 5 cm. If a 5-cm layer is accepted as relevant for regulatory purposes, then an application of 1 kg/ha would be equivalent to 1-67 ppm (dry) in the artificial soil test.

Book chapter↗

Pilot-scale testing of dairy manure treatments to reduce nutrient transport from land application, northwest Ohio, 2015–17

Manure and wastewater from large livestock operations have the potential to negatively affect surface water and groundwater, including the eutrophication of surface waters and harmful algal blooms. In the Western Lake Erie Basin, where there is a high density of animal agriculture, harmful algal blooms have been attributed, in part, to phosphorus loading from dairy manure and fertilizer applications. Liquid lagoon manure produced by dairy operations typically has low nutrient concentrations and high-water content, so transportation costs are high relative to the value of the nutrients when applied to fields. Treatment systems are needed to transform manure into a dewatered product that is more economical to transport greater distances and that slows and (or) reduces the release of nutrients in soil, allowing nutrients to remain available for crop growth. This study was designed to pilot test a treatment solution in the Western Lake Erie Basin. The U.S. Geological Survey and Bowling Green State University field tested a dewatering treatment process (coagulant/polymer mixture) for dairy manure at pilot-scale test plots at The Ohio State University Agricultural Research and Development Center Northwest Agricultural Research Station. Automatic samplers were used to collect samples during 13 baseline and 9 post-manure application rainfall events that resulted in substantial surface runoff and (or) tile flow from October 2015 through early November 2017. Results are reported for three test plots that received liquid lagoon manure (raw manure) and three test plots that received polymer-treated manure (treated manure). Nutrient concentrations and flow volumes in surface runoff and tile flow were determined in baseline and post-manure application rainfall events. Nutrient concentration ranges are reported for 9 baseline and 9 post-manure application events as follows: dissolved reactive phosphorus, less than (<) 0.013−2.16 milligrams per liter (mg/L); nitrate plus nitrite, filtered, 0.32−77 mg/L; ammonia, filtered, <0.05−2.6 mg/L; total phosphorus, <0.01−12.8 mg/L; and total nitrogen, 1.49−77.2 mg/L. Volumes are reported for 6 baseline and 9 post-manure application rainfall events. None of the post-manure application runoff volumes were significantly different by plot or by treatment type (raw manure versus treated manure). Because concentrations alone do not reflect the true effects of different manure treatments, loads and flow-weighted mean concentrations of nutrients during post-manure application rainfall events were compared between plots with treated manure and those with raw manure. Loads of dissolved reactive phosphorus, total phosphorus, nitrate plus nitrite, and total nitrogen were calculated using the U.S. Geological Survey Graphical Constituent Loading and Analysis System. Loads of ammonia were not calculated because many of the ammonia concentrations were below the reporting limit. During the post-manure application period, higher nitrogen loads resulted from tile flow than surface runoff. For phosphorus, the opposite was true in that higher loads resulted from surface runoff than tile flow. Combined loads (surface runoff and tile flow) of dissolved reactive phosphorus were significantly different between raw manure and treated manure plots, but there was no significant difference in combined loads of total phosphorus, nitrate plus nitrite, or total nitrogen between raw manure and treated manure plots. Flow-weighted mean concentrations were calculated for the combined loads for the post-manure application rainfall events. Flow-weighted mean concentrations of dissolved reactive phosphorus and, to a lesser extent, total phosphorus were significantly different between raw manure and treated manure plots. Flow-weighted mean concentrations of nitrate plus nitrite and total nitrogen were not significantly different between raw manure and treated manure plots. The differences in loads and flow-weighted mean concentrations between raw manure and treated manure plots indicate that dissolved reactive phosphorus was likely retained in the soil and hydrological transport was reduced for the plots amended with the treated manure as compared to raw manure. Although confirmation field testing needs to be done, these results indicate that the use of this coagulant/polymer mixture shows potential in helping to reduce flow of dissolved phosphorus from agricultural fields with applied manure.

Ohio↗

Protected areas as social-ecological systems: perspectives from resilience and social-ecological systems theory

Conservation biology and applied ecology increasingly recognize that natural resource management is both an outcome and a driver of social, economic, and ecological dynamics. Protected areas offer a fundamental approach to conserving ecosystems, but they are also social-ecological systems whose ecological management and sustainability are heavily influenced by people. This editorial, and the papers in the invited feature that it introduces, discuss three emerging themes in social-ecological systems approaches to understanding protected areas: (1) the resilience and sustainability of protected areas, including analyses of their internal dynamics, their effectiveness, and the resilience of the landscapes within which they occur; (2) the relevance of spatial context and scale for protected areas, including such factors as geographic connectivity, context, exchanges between protected areas and their surrounding landscapes, and scale dependency in the provision of ecosystem services; and (3) efforts to reframe what protected areas are and how they both define and are defined by the relationships of people and nature. These emerging themes have the potential to transform management and policy approaches for protected areas and have important implications for conservation, in both theory and practice.

Ecological Applications↗

Summary of the analyses for recovery factors

Introduction In order to determine the hydrocarbon potential of oil reservoirs within the U.S. sedimentary basins for which the carbon dioxide enhanced oil recovery (CO 2- EOR) process has been considered suitable, the CO 2 Prophet model was chosen by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to be the primary source for estimating recovery-factor values for individual reservoirs. The choice was made because of the model’s reliability and the ease with which it can be used to assess a large number of reservoirs. The other two approaches—the empirical decline curve analysis (DCA) method and a review of published literature on CO 2 -EOR projects—were deployed to verify the results of the CO 2 Prophet model. This chapter discusses the results from CO 2 Prophet (chapter B, by Emil D. Attanasi, this report) and compares them with results from decline curve analysis (chapter C, by Hossein Jahediesfanjani) and those reported in the literature for selected reservoirs with adequate data for analyses (chapter D, by Ricardo A. Olea). To estimate the technically recoverable hydrocarbon potential for oil reservoirs where CO 2 -EOR has been applied, two of the three approaches—CO 2 Prophet modeling and DCA—do not include analysis of economic factors, while the third approach—review of published literature—implicitly includes economics. For selected reservoirs, DCA has provided estimates of the technically recoverable hydrocarbon volumes, which, in combination with calculated amounts of original oil in place (OOIP), helped establish incremental CO 2 -EOR recovery factors for individual reservoirs. The review of published technical papers and reports has provided substantial information on recovery factors for 70 CO 2 -EOR projects that are either commercially profitable or classified as pilot tests. When comparing the results, it is important to bear in mind the differences and limitations of these three approaches.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

Transdisciplinary application of the cross-scale resilience model

The cross-scale resilience model was developed in ecology to explain the emergence of resilience from the distribution of ecological functions within and across scales, and as a tool to assess resilience. We propose that the model and the underlying discontinuity hypothesis are relevant to other complex adaptive systems, and can be used to identify and track changes in system parameters related to resilience. We explain the theory behind the cross-scale resilience model, review the cases where it has been applied to non-ecological systems, and discuss some examples of social-ecological, archaeological/ anthropological, and economic systems where a cross-scale resilience analysis could add a quantitative dimension to our current understanding of system dynamics and resilience. We argue that the scaling and diversity parameters suitable for a resilience analysis of ecological systems are appropriate for a broad suite of systems where non-normative quantitative assessments of resilience are desired. Our planet is currently characterized by fast environmental and social change, and the cross-scale resilience model has the potential to quantify resilience across many types of complex adaptive systems.

Sustainability↗

The National Map: Benefits at what cost?

The U.S. Geological Survey has conducted a cost-benefit analysis of The National Map, and determined that, during its 30-year projected lifespan, the project will likely bring a net present value of benefits to society of $2.05 billion. Such a survey enhances the United States' ability to access, integrate, and apply geospatial data at global, national, and local scales. This paper gives an overview on the underlying economic model for evaluating program benefits and presents the primary findings as well as a sensitivity analysis assessing the robustness of the results.

GeoSpatial Solutions↗

Use of structural geology in exploration for and mining of sedimentary rock-hosted Au deposits

Structural geology is an important component in regional-, district- and orebody-scale exploration and development of sedimentary rock-hosted Au deposits. Identification of timing of important structural events in an ore district allows analysis and classification of fluid conduits and construction of genetic models for ore formation. The most practical uses of structural geology deal with measurement and definition of various elements that comprise orebodies, which can then be directly applied to ore-reserve estimation, ground control, grade control, safety issues, and mine planning. District- and regional-scale structural studies are directly applicable to long-term strategic planning, economic analysis, and land ownership. Orebodies in sedimentary rock-hosted Au deposits are discrete, hypogene, epigenetic masses usually hosted in a fault zone, breccia mass, or lithologic bed or unit. These attributes allow structural geology to be directly applied to the mining and exploration of sedimentary rock-hosted Au deposits. Internal constituents in orebodies reflect unique episodes relating to ore formation. The main internal constituents in orebodies are ore minerals, gangue, and alteration minerals that usually are mixed with one another in complex patterns, the relations among which may be used to interpret the processes of orebody formation and control. Controls of orebody location and shape usually are due to structural dilatant zones caused by changes in attitude, splays, lithologic contacts, and intersections of the host conduit or unit. In addition, conceptual parameters such as district fabric, predictable distances, and stacking also are used to understand the geometry of orebodies. Controls in ore districts and location and geometry of orebodies in ore districts can be predicted to various degrees by using a number of qualitative concepts such as internal and external orebody plunges, district plunge, district stacking, conduit classification, geochemical, geobarometric and geothermal gradients, and tectonic warps. These concepts have practical and empirical application in most mining districts where they are of use in the exploration for ore, but are of such broad and general application that they may not represent known or inferred ore formation processes. Close spatial relation among some sedimentary rock- hosted Au deposits and their host structures suggests that the structures and the orebodies are genetically linked because they may have shared the same developmental history. Examples of probable syn-deformational genesis and structural control of sedimentary rock-hosted Au deposits are in the large Betze deposit in the Carlin trend, Nevada and in the Lannigou, Jinlongshan, and Maanqiao Au deposits, China.

Open-File Report↗

Integrating across scales: Effectively applying science for the successful conservation of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is an excellent species on which to focus synthetic, integrative investigations because it is an economically important species that captures the public imagination, is heavily impacted by humans, uses several ecosystems over its life, and is the subject of a large body of extant literature. The following 24 papers were solicited to provide the biological basis for effective and innovative approaches that biologists, managers, and social scientists can use to develop policies that sustain Atlantic salmon and related species. Together these papers highlight the need for and benefits of (a) synthesizing within populations, (b) choosing the appropriate scale, (c) comparing across populations using rigorous, focused, question-oriented methods, (d) integrating across disciplines, (e) incorporating the human perspective, (f) linking multiple ecosystems, and (g) applied problem solving. To show how Atlantic salmon can guide research and conservation efforts for other species in other systems, we review the justification for the supplement and summarize the defining concepts that emerge from the volume.

Conference Paper↗

A framework for quantitative assessment of impacts related to energy and mineral resource development

Natural resource planning at all scales demands methods for assessing the impacts of resource development and use, and in particular it requires standardized methods that yield robust and unbiased results. Building from existing probabilistic methods for assessing the volumes of energy and mineral resources, we provide an algorithm for consistent, reproducible, quantitative assessment of resource development impacts. The approach combines probabilistic input data with Monte Carlo statistical methods to determine probabilistic outputs that convey the uncertainties inherent in the data. For example, one can utilize our algorithm to combine data from a natural gas resource assessment with maps of sage grouse leks and piñon-juniper woodlands in the same area to estimate possible future habitat impacts due to possible future gas development. As another example: one could combine geochemical data and maps of lynx habitat with data from a mineral deposit assessment in the same area to determine possible future mining impacts on water resources and lynx habitat. The approach can be applied to a broad range of positive and negative resource development impacts, such as water quantity or quality, economic benefits, or air quality, limited only by the availability of necessary input data and quantified relationships among geologic resources, development alternatives, and impacts. The framework enables quantitative evaluation of the trade-offs inherent in resource management decision-making, including cumulative impacts, to address societal concerns and policy aspects of resource development.

Natural Resources Research↗

Estimating landslide losses - preliminary results of a seven-State pilot project

Introduction: In 2001, the U.S. Geological Survey Landslide Hazards Program provided funding for seven State geological surveys to report on the status of landslide investigation strategies in each of their States, and to suggest improved ways to approach the tracking of landslides, their effects, losses associated with the landslides, and hazard mitigation strategies. Each State was to provide a draft report suggesting innovative ways to track landslides, and to participate in subsequent workshops. A workshop was convened in June 2003 in Lincoln, Neb., to discuss the results and future strategies on how best to incorporate the seven pilot projects into one methodology that all of the 50 States could adopt. The seven individual reports produced by the State surveys are published here to put forth a forum for discussion of the varying methods of tracking landslides. The goal is to eventually adopt a single, universally applied methodology to track landslides that will provide a consistent framework for collecting data on landslide damage and economic impact. Participating States include: California (James Davis, Jack McMillan); Kentucky (Jim Cobb, John Kiefer, John Rockaway); Nebraska (Mark Kuzila, Duane Eversoll); Ohio (Thomas Berg, Jon Rockaway), Oregon (John Beaulieu, Yumei Wang, Renee Summers, Jon Hofmeister); Pennsylvania (Jay Parrish, Helen Delano); Utah (Richard Allis, Francis Ashland). The USGS personnel involved in the planning and meeting facilitation are Paula Gori, Peter Lyttle, and John Pallister. The general USGS strategy to address landslide loss reduction was developed with input from State geological surveys, the engineering-geology consulting community, and academic investigators. The strategy was reviewed by the National Research Council, 2004), is summarized in USGS Circular 1244 (Spiker and Gori, 2003) and is endorsed by the AASG. This pilot study, conducted by seven State geological surveys, examines the feasibility of collecting accurate and reliable information on economic losses associated with landslides. Each State survey examined the availability, distribution, and inherent uncertainties of economic loss data in their study areas. Their results provide the basis for identifying the most fruitful methods of collecting landslide loss data nationally, using methods that are consistent and provide common goals. These results can enhance and establish the future directions of scientific investigation priorities by convincingly documenting landslide risks and consequences that are universal throughout the 50 States. This report is organized as follows: A general summary of the pilot project history, goals, and preliminary conclusions from the Lincoln, Neb. workshop are presented first. Internet links are then provided for each State report, which appear on the internet in PDF format and which have been placed at the end of this open-file report. A reference section follows the reports, and, lastly, an Appendix of categories of landslide loss and sources of loss information is included for the reader's information. Please note: The Oregon Geological Survey has also submitted a preliminary report on indirect loss estimation methodology, which is also linked with the others. Each State report is unique and presented in the form in which it was submitted, having been independently peer reviewed by each respective State survey. As such, no universal 'style' or format has been adopted as there have been no decisions on which inventory methods will be recommended to the 50 states, as of this writing. The reports are presented here as information for decision makers, and for the record; although several reports provide recommendations on inventory methods that could be adopted nationwide, currently no decisions have been made on adopting a uniform methodology for the States.

Open-File Report↗

Larger larval sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) have longer survival times when exposed to the lampricide 3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol

Invasive sea lamprey ( Petromyzon marinus ) in the Laurentian Great Lakes have negatively impacted ecologically and economically important fishes for nearly a century. To mitigate these effects, the lampricide 3-trifluoromethyl-4-nitrophenol (TFM) is applied annually on a rotating basis to selected Great Lakes tributaries to kill larval lamprey before they become juveniles, out-migrate to the lakes, and parasitize other fishes. It has been hypothesized that larval size (e.g., mass, length) may affect survival time in response to TFM. To test this hypothesis, we conducted an experiment with 8611 larvae across four temporal replicates, in which TFM concentrations equivalent to those used in present-day stream treatments were applied for up to 18 h. When examining the survival times of larval lamprey exposed to TFM, we found a significant, positive relationship between length, mass, toxicity, and their interactions. For every 1 mm increase in total length, a corresponding increase by 1 g of mass reduced survival time by 0.4315 min [95 % CI: 0.5283–0.2992] and vice versa (i.e., the significant interaction between length and mass revealed that as larvae increase in mass, the survival benefit to being longer decreases, and vice versa). The changes in total length and mass of larval sea lamprey stored in ethanol for 4 months was also quantified. The observation that five larvae survived well past the 12-hour time window of a typical TFM field treatment highlights the need for continuous monitoring and the development of new control strategies to ensure the continued effective management of this invasive species.

Michigan↗