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USGS2022

Evaluation of select velocity measurement techniques for estimating discharge in small streams across the United States

Multiple instruments and methods exist for collecting discrete streamflow measurements in small streams with low flows, defined here as less than 5.7 m 3 /s (200 ft3/s). Included in the available methods are low-cost approaches that are infrequently used, in part, because their uncertainty is not well known. In this work, we evaluated the accuracy and suitability of three low-cost velocity measurement methods (surface float [SF], velocity head rod [VR], and rising body [RB]) and three conventional current meters (acoustic Doppler velocimeter, and mechanical Price type AA and Price Pygmy meters) relative to discharge calculated from stable artificial hydraulic controls. A total of 231 measurements were made by 20 individuals during 88 site visits to 24 sites in eight states. Accuracies were assessed for all methods and precision was evaluated for the low-cost methods. The median percent error was below 5% for conventional methods, and below 20% for the low-cost methods. The SF was the most accurate (median absolute percent error 14%) and precise (mean percent precision of 11%) low-cost method. The RB and VR, respectively, had 15% and 20% median absolute percent error and 29% and 12% mean percent precision. Results suggest that low-cost methods, when used appropriately, can be used to estimate discharge data under low flow conditions when measurements with conventional methods are not feasible and the associated accuracies meet end-user measurement objectives.

continental United States↗

USGS2024

Introduction to recommended capabilities and instrumentation for volcano monitoring in the United States

Introduction The National Volcano Early Warning System (NVEWS) was authorized and partially funded by the U.S. Government in 2019. In response, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Volcano Hazards Program asked its scientists to reflect on and summarize their views of best practices for volcano monitoring. The goal was to review and update the recommendations of a previous report (Moran and others, 2008) and to provide a more detailed analysis of capabilities and instrumentation for monitoring networks for U.S. volcanoes. This Scientific Investigations Report and its chapters reflect those USGS scientists’ views and summaries and will serve as a guide for future network upgrades funded through NVEWS. Given the well-documented hazards posed by volcanoes to population centers and aviation (for example, Blong, 1984; Scott, 1989; Neal and others, 1997, 2019; Guffanti and others, 2010; Shroder and Papale, 2014; Prata and Rose, 2015; Palmer, 2020), volcano monitoring is critical for ensuring public safety and for mitigating the impacts of volcanic activity. Accurate and timely forecasts are facilitated by well-designed monitoring networks that are in place long enough to allow for background behavior to be recognized and understood. Because precursory signals may be limited and unrest may progress rapidly to an eruption, our goal is to deploy monitoring systems that enable detection of the reactivation of dormant volcanoes as early as possible, allowing for public safety and risk mitigation. NVEWS planning is also informed by the results of Ewert and others (2005, 2018), whereby 161 U.S. volcanoes are currently categorized and ranked commensurate with their relative threat. In each chapter, author(s) considered the need for some redundancy of instrumentation and telemetry, given the likelihood of occasional equipment failure, particularly in extreme and remote environments. Establishing digital telemetry networks requires advanced planning, sighting, radio-shot testing, and, inevitably, troubleshooting in the field. This is harder to achieve rapidly during a crisis; thus, an important goal for monitoring U.S. volcanoes is to establish digital telemetry backbones with redundancy and extra capacity to absorb additional instruments should a volcano begin to exhibit signs of unrest (fig. A1). The National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) imposed new regulations in the United States, eliminating the use of older analog radios for many purposes, which had been one previous means for redundant data delivery. However, the resulting conversion from analog to digital systems usefully enables stations to accommodate new and multivariate real-time data streams (for example, Global Navigation Satellite System [GNSS] receivers, infrasound arrays, gas spectrometers, visible and infrared cameras, and broadband seismometers). We note that other USGS and broader national and international hazard programs can leverage NVEWS instrumentation plans. Examples of this include the following: Improved seismic coverage of volcanoes will increase the capability of the USGS Earthquake Hazards Program to detect and locate earthquakes, estimate ground shaking, and provide timely early warnings through the ShakeAlert Earthquake Early Warning System (Given and others, 2018). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Tsunami Program will benefit from additional seismic stations, particularly within the sparsely instrumented Aleutian Islands, Northern Mariana Islands, and American Samoa. Infrasound stations can detect signals from landslides, debris flows and lahars, floods, and weather events, providing benefits to the National Weather Service and the USGS Landslide Hazards Program.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2019

Adult survival of common eiders in Maine

Although most species of sea ducks are poorly studied, much is known about the population dynamics of the American race of Somateria mollissma dresseri (Common Eider). Although Common Eiders typically have high adult survival and low recruitment rates, their populations in Maine have declined since the early 1990s. Wildlife managers hypothesized this decline was due to reduced adult survival; therefore, they decreased daily bag limits in Maine in 1999 and 2009 to increase local populations. The goals of this project were to assess (a) whether survival rates of adult females captured while nesting varied between historical estimates (1943–1993) and recent estimates (2000–2012), (b) whether survival rates increased from 2000–2009 after the initial harvest restrictions were implemented in 1999, and (c) determine if estimates of survival rates of adult males and females captured while molting differed from estimates of adult females captured while nesting. We used mark–recapture models to estimate survival rates of Common Eiders we banded in Maine (nesting females [ n = 2340] from 2000 to 2012; molting males [ n = 4366] and molting females [ n = 4952] from 2000 to 2009). We found no difference in survival of nesting females based on historical (mean ± SE = 0.9003 ± 0.0841) and recent estimates (0.90 ± 0.015). Although we observed annual fluctuations in survival, survival rates did not increase following the implementation of harvest restrictions. Mean annual survival rates were similarly high for molting females (0.894 ± 0.0205) and nesting females, but lower for molting males (0.855 ± 0.0128). Lower survival rates of adult males may reflect the preference by US hunters to selectively harvest adult males. Overall mean recovery rates of banded birds were low (females: 0.037 ± 0.00043, males: 0.0226 ± 0.0006). We hypothesize that current harvest rates may be influencing decreased survival of adult males to some extent.

Maine↗

USGS2020

Variation in black bass angler characteristics by stream size and accessibility in Oklahoma’s Ozark Highland streams

Fishing in streams and rivers is a popular outdoor recreation activity in eastern Oklahoma, where most anglers target black bass ( Micropterus ) species. Since the early 1990s, when the last assessment of black bass fishing in the region was conducted, broadscale factors such as harvesting behavior, state fishery regulations, and bass population dynamics have changed. In 2018, we conducted creel and fish tagging surveys in three tributaries of Lake Tenkiller (Caney Creek, Baron Fork, and Illinois River) that differed in size and accessibility to provide current estimates of catch, harvest, and effort directed toward black bass. We then related these estimates to angler socioeconomic characteristics. The amount of angler effort was concomitant with stream size and accessibility, being greatest in the largest stream with the most access (Illinois River). However, catch rates were highest in the medium-sized stream (Baron Fork). Harvest rates and exploitation were near zero in all systems. Anglers fishing Caney Creek, the smallest and least accessible stream, were nearly all local, coming from zip codes ~42 km away, with low median household incomes compared to anglers at the other streams who came from a broader array of more distant zip codes and had higher median household incomes. Anglers fishing the smallest stream were also more interested in harvesting fish and having higher creel limits than anglers at the other two systems. In the Oklahoma Ozark Highlands, stream size and accessibility appear to be a significant factor in angler demographics, potentially necessitating different management strategies.

Oklahoma↗

USGS2019

Black Carp in North America: A description of range, habitats, time of year, and methods of reported captures

Black Carp Mylopharyngodon piceus are considered invasive in North America. Since the first wild capture in 2003, collection records have increased, yet information summarizing successful collection methods is lacking. Reported capture methods throughout the Black Carp's native and introduced ranges vary providing minimal aid for determining control and monitoring methods. Here, we describe the current species range and the spatial and temporal variation among captures. The size of fish can affect capture; thus, we report captured fish and gear dimensions and recommend appropriate scientific collection methods. We focus on collection data from 302 Black Carp ranging from 410 to 1,607 mm total length received from 2011 to February 2019. The reported range of Black Carp has expanded in the Cumberland, Illinois, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, and Tennessee rivers. Captures most frequently occurred in channel (41%), side‐channel (24%), and backwater (22%) habitat types, with increased records in May, June, and July. Most records were commercial captures, of which hoop net (51%) and gill net (26%) were most common. Results suggest that standard scientific methods for sampling fish in large rivers and standing water by hoop net and gill net may be used to monitor Black Carp, but a robust study design needs to be applied to determine gear selectivity and to determine if catch rates are density dependent or incidental.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗

USGS2007

Pleistocene Brawley and Ocotillo Formations: Evidence for initial strike-slip deformation along the San Felipe and San Jacinto fault zonez, Southern California

We examine the Pleistocene tectonic reorganization of the Pacific-North American plate boundary in the Salton Trough of southern California with an integrated approach that includes basin analysis, magnetostratigraphy, and geologic mapping of upper Pliocene to Pleistocene sedimentary rocks in the San Felipe Hills. These deposits preserve the earliest sedimentary record of movement on the San Felipe and San Jacinto fault zones that replaced and deactivated the late Cenozoic West Salton detachment fault. Sandstone and mudstone of the Brawley Formation accumulated between ???1.1 and ???0.6-0.5 Ma in a delta on the margin of an arid Pleistocene lake, which received sediment from alluvial fans of the Ocotillo Formation to the west-southwest. Our analysis indicates that the Ocotillo and Brawley formations prograded abruptly to the east-northeast across a former mud-dominated perennial lake (Borrego Formation) at ???1.1 Ma in response to initiation of the dextral-oblique San Felipe fault zone. The ???25-km-long San Felipe anticline initiated at about the same time and produced an intrabasinal basement-cored high within the San Felipe-Borrego basin that is recorded by progressive unconformities on its north and south limbs. A disconformity at the base of the Brawley Formation in the eastern San Felipe Hills probably records initiation and early blind slip at the southeast tip of the Clark strand of the San Jacinto fault zone. Our data are consistent with abrupt and nearly synchronous inception of the San Jacinto and San Felipe fault zones southwest of the southern San Andreas fault in the early Pleistocene during a pronounced southwestward broadening of the San Andreas fault zone. The current contractional geometry of the San Jacinto fault zone developed after ???0.5-0.6 Ma during a second, less significant change in structural style. ?? 2007 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved.

Journal of Geology↗

USGS2025

Estimated annual abundance of migratory Peale's Peregrine Falcons in coastal Washington, USA

Following the recovery of Peregrine Falcons ( Falco peregrinus ), the US Fish and Wildlife Service began a process to allow “take” (capture) of wild peregrines for falconry in the United States. Recently, that effort involved generating updated estimates of the collective abundance of the three North American peregrine subspecies: F. p. anatum , F. p. tundrius , and F. p. pealei (Peale's Peregrine Falcon). Because of the more limited distribution of F. p. pealei , we conducted an analysis specific to its geographic range. We analyzed data from a long-term banding and resighting program on three beaches on the southern coast of Washington, USA, to estimate the annual abundance of migrating and overwintering F. p. pealei , using the capture histories of 250 Peregrine Falcons, nearly all of which were captured during 1277 vehicle surveys between 1995 and 2024. Because we studied an open population of migratory individuals, we used a zero-inflated Poisson log-normal mark-resight model to estimate annual abundance. For the analyses, we partitioned our survey data into sighting periods, each of which extended from 1 September of one year to 31 May of the next. We anticipated that first-year F. p. pealei would be identified for falconry take, and our annual abundance estimates for first-year birds of this subspecies ranged from a high of 24.8 ± 6.1 (SE) individuals in the 2014–2015 sighting period to a low of 1.9 ± 1.4 individuals in the 2023–2024 sighting period. Peregrine Falcon abundance varied annually and appeared to decline during the last two sighting periods. Our sighting rate of marked peregrines was negatively associated with Bald Eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus ) encounter rate. There was a lesser relationship to human activity, and we suspect the change in sighting rate was a behavioral response by Peregrine Falcons to the threat of kleptoparasitism by Bald Eagles. We currently lack comprehensive information about the natal origin of the individual peregrines in our study area, which prevented us from assessing the degree to which falconry take from the pool of falcons migrating to or through Washington might potentially impact local or regional abundances. Although a better understanding of natal origins is needed, our data add clarity to the migration and overwinter abundance of F. p. pealei on the Washington coast and may inform decisions about the take of this subspecies for falconry.

Washington↗

USGS2007

Evolving plans for the USA National Phenology Network

Phenology is the study of periodic plant and animal life cycle events, how these are influenced by seasonal and interannual variations in climate, and how they modulate the abundance, diversity, and interactions of organisms. The USA National Phenology Network (USA-NPN) is currently being organized to engage federal agencies, environmental networks and field stations, educational institutions, and citizen scientists. The first USA-NPN planning workshop was held August 2005, in Tucson, Ariz. (Betancourt et al. [2005]; http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/Geography/npn/; by 1 June 2007, also see http://www.usanpn.org). With sponsorship from the U.S. National Science Foundation, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and NASA, the second USA-NPN planning workshop was held at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee on 10–12 October 2006 to (1) develop lists of target species and observation protocols; (2) identify existing networks that could comprise the backbone of nationwide observations by 2008; (3) develop opportunities for education, citizen science, and outreach beginning in spring 2007; (4) design strategies for implementing the remote sensing component of USA-NPN; and (5) draft a data management and cyberinfrastructure plan.

Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union↗

USGS1998

Early life history stages of Gulf sturgeon in the Suwannee River, Florida

Egg sampling confirmed that Suwannee River Gulf sturgeon Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi , a subspecies of Atlantic sturgeon A. o. oxyrinchus use the same spawning site at river kilometer (rkm) 215 from the mouth of the river each year. Forty-nine eggs were recorded in 1995, and 368 were recorded in 1996. Spawning began 4–7 d after the March new moon in both years and lasted 10–11 d; in 1996, a second 10-d spawning round began on the April new moon. Developmental synchrony among eggs recovered suggested several discrete spawning events in both years. Total eggs deposited for three 1996 sampling days was estimated as 405,600–711,000/d, approximating the fecundity range of a large female Gulf sturgeon . Eggs were found only in the southern half of the river , an area with surface currents of 0.5–1.5 m/s and numerous eddies producing reverse bottom currents of 0.1–0.5 m/s. Egg substrate consisted of bedrock limestone thinly overlain by fine sand and densely distributed elliptical gravel 2–10 cm in diameter. Eggs were found predominantly in depths of 2–4 m at water temperatures of 17–21°C, conductivities of 50–100 μS, and dissolved oxygen levels exceeding 5.0 mg/L. The Cody Scarp, 15 rkm above the spawning ground, may mark the upstream limit of spawning areas in the river . Three 2–4-month-old riverine juveniles (82–115 mm total length, TL) collected are the smallest yet captured from any river . Data for 18 riverine age-0 juveniles (to 350 mm TL) suggest that this stage lasts 6–10 months, terminating with migration of fish to the river mouth in January–February. Less than 2% of 461 juveniles captured at the estuarine river mouth (1990–1993) were under 350 mm TL. Riverine age-0 fish were collected over long shallow stretches (typically <4 m deep) of relatively barren sand (rkm 12–238).

Florida↗

USGS2011

Soil warming alters seed-bank responses across the geographic range of freshwater Taxodium distichum (Cupressaceae) swamps

Premise of the Study: Climate warming is predicted to have far‐reaching effects on the distribution of species, but those effects may depend on the flexibility of regenerating species in responding to climate gradients. We conducted a study to determine whether the variation in the response of seed banks to temperature varied across the latitudinal range of Taxodium distichum swamps in North America. • Methods: The soil was collected in a long‐term research network and heated experimentally to three current‐day spring normal soil temperatures (average maximum daily spring normal soil temperatures during May in Illinois, Arkansas, and Louisiana, USA, respectively: 22°, 25°, and 29°C). A “normal” is the mean temperature calculated over a 30‐yr interval (1971–2000). Seed‐bank density and biomass responses were examined in relation to latitude and difference in the soil temperature of the experiment and the spring normal. • Key Results: Using first‐ and second‐order regression analysis, we determined that the variation in total germination density was lowest mid‐range and in experimental soil temperatures similar to the spring normal. For some dominant species, the variance in germination density was higher in the northern ( Cephalanthus occidentalis ) or the southern part of the network ( Saururus cernuus and Polygonum pensylvanicum ). Overall, the variance of total biomass (root, shoot, whole plant) was higher if the experimental soil temperature was warmer than the spring normal. • Conclusions: Our results suggest that the regeneration of some populations of swamp species may have more flexibility to respond to climate warming than others.

Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Ken↗

USGS2009

Presettlement and modern disturbance regimes in coast redwood forests: Implications for the conservation of old-growth stands

Coast redwood ( Sequoia sempervirens ), a western North American conifer of ancient lineage, has a paradoxical combination of late-successional characteristics and strong adaptations to disturbance. Despite its shade tolerance and heavy dominance of the canopy on many sites, redwood saplings are uncommon in upland old-growth stands. Information needed to ensure the conservation of old-growth redwood forests has been limited. In this review paper, we integrate evidence on redwood biology with data on the historic and modern disturbance regimes to help clarify the degree to which key attributes of redwood forests may have been dependent upon periodic disturbance. Available evidence suggests that episodes of fire, flooding, and slope failure prior to European settlement were frequent but predominantly of low to moderate severity and extent, resulting in broadly uneven-aged forests. The majority of fires prior to European settlement were apparently of human origin. Frequency and severity of the major disturbance agents have been radically changed in modern times. Fires have been largely excluded, and flooding has been altered in ways that have often been detrimental to old-growth redwoods on alluvial terraces. However, because of the apparent anthropogenic origin of most presettlement fires, the long-term evolutionary role of fire for coast redwood is ecologically ambiguous. With fire exclusion, redwood possibly could be displaced to some extent on upland sites by increasing abundance of fire-sensitive competitors. Alternatively, redwood may be able to maintain dominance by vegetative sprouting and new seedling establishment on root-wad mounds, fallen logs, and on soil exposed by slope failure. Future research priorities are suggested that will help resolve some of the current ambiguities.

Forest Ecology and Management↗

USGS2005

Historical and current perspectives on fish assemblages of the Snake River, Idaho and Wyoming

The Snake River is the tenth longest river in the United States, extending 1,667 km from its origin in Yellowstone National Park in western Wyoming to its union with the Columbia River at Pasco, Washington. Historically, the main-stem Snake River upstream from the Hells Canyon Complex supported at least 26 native fish species, including anadromous stocks of Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, steelhead O. mykiss, Pacific lamprey Lampetra tridentata, and white sturgeon Acipenser transmontanus. Of these anadromous species, only the white sturgeon remains in the Snake River between the Hells Canyon Complex and Shoshone Falls. Today, much of the Snake River has been transformed into a river with numerous impoundments and flow diversions, increased pollutant loads, and elevated water temperatures. Current (1993-2002) fish assemblage collections from 15 sites along the Snake River and Henrys Fork contained 35 fish species, including 16 alien species. Many of these alien species such as catfish (Ictaluridae), carp (Cyprinidae), and sunfish (Centrarchidae) are adapted for warmwater impounded habitats. Currently, the Snake River supports 19 native species. An index of biotic integrity (IBI), developed to evaluate large rivers in the Northwest, was used to evaluate recent (1993-2002) fish collections from the Snake River and Henrys Fork in southern Idaho and western Wyoming. Index of biotic integrity site scores and component metrics revealed a decline in biotic integrity from upstream to downstream in both the Snake River and Henrys Fork. Two distinct groups of sites were evident that correspond to a range of IBI scores-an upper Snake River and Henrys Fork group with relatively high biotic integrity (mean IBI scores of 46-84) and a lower Snake River group with low biotic integrity (mean IBI scores of 10-29). Sites located in the lower Snake River exhibited fish assemblages that reflect poor-quality habitat where coldwater and sensitive species are rare or absent, and where tolerant, less desirable species predominate. Increases in percentages of agricultural land, total number of diversions, and number of constructed channels were strongly associated with these decreasing IBI scores.

American Fisheries Society Symposium↗

USGS1995

Bullfrogs: Introduced predators in southwestern wetlands

In the American Southwest, much of the native fish fauna is facing extinction (Minckley and Deacon 1991); frogs in California (Fellers and Drost 1993) and frogs and garter snakes in Arizona (Schwalbe and Rosen 1988) are also in critical decline. Habitat destruction and introduced predators appear to be primary causes of native frog declines (Jennings and Hayes 1994), and habitat modification often yields ponds and lakes especially suitable for introduced species. Introduced bullfrogs ( Rana catesbeiana ) have been blamed for amphibian declines in much of western North America (e.g., Hayes and Jennings 1986; Leonard et al. 1993; Vial and Saylor 1993). Extensive cannibalism by bullfrogs renders them especially potent predators at the population level. The tadpoles require only perennial water and grazeable plant material; hence, transforming young can sustain a dense adult bullfrog population even if alternate prey are depleted. This may increase the probability that native species may be extirpated by bullfrog predation. Introduced predatory fishes are apparently an important cause of frog declines (Hayes and Jennings 1986). They have been strongly implicated in one important case of decline of native ranid frog (family Ranidae, the "true" frogs; Bradford 1989). Some introduced crayfish may also be devastating in some areas (Jennings and Hayes 1994). In our study region, however, neither introduced fishes nor crayfish are dominant. We present results that sustain a "bullfrog hypothesis" for some native ranid declines, and we present our study as an example of how evidence accumulates to support such a hypothesis. In 1985 we began documenting historical localities for wetland herpetofaunas (reptiles and amphibians), based on museum records and personal interviews, then revisited these and additional areas to determine current species' status. Results of this process, plus circumstantial evidence, suggested that the bullfrog was a primary cause for declines of leopard frogs and garter snakes in southern Arizona (Schwalbe and Rosen 1988). In 1986-89 and 1992-93 we conducted removal censuses of bullfrogs at San Bernardino National Wildlife Refuge (SBNWR), Cochise County, Arizona. We simultaneously monitored native Chiricahua leopard frogs ( R. chiricahuensis ) and Mexican garter snakes ( Thamnophis eques ) at the sites of bullfrog removal. A control site, with no bullfrog removal, was established in comparable habitat at Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge (BANWR), Pima County, Arizona.

Book chapter↗

USGS2014

Using spatial resampling to assess redd count survey length requirements for Pacific Lamprey

Pacific Lamprey Entosphenus tridentatus has declined across its range along the West Coast of North America, and an understanding of all life history phases is needed to address population recovery. Spawning surveys (redd counts) are common tools currently used to monitor returning adult salmonids, but such methodologies are in their infancy for Pacific Lamprey. Our objective was to assess the minimum spawning survey distance required to detect the presence of Pacific Lamprey redds and obtain precise redd density estimates from these data. To do this, we statistically resampled existing spawning locations of Pacific Lamprey collected during spawning surveys in four streams of the Willamette River Basin, Oregon, during spring of 2013. We found that the minimum survey distance for Pacific Lamprey redd detection was inversely related to the observed redd density and was always less than 1.2 km. Survey distance requirements to obtain precise redd counts (±20% of observed redd densities) were also inversely related to redd density and habitat availability, and varied between 1.3 km and 13.7 km. Our results suggest that spawning surveys are a potential tool for monitoring adult Pacific Lamprey abundance, but the specific objectives of the monitoring programs and acknowledgment of unknowns must be considered prior to implementation into recovery plans.

Oregon↗

USGS2009

Future water-supply scenarios, Cape May County, New Jersey, 2003-2050

Stewards of the water supply in New Jersey are interested in developing a plan to supply potable and non-potable water to residents and businesses of Cape May County until at least 2050. The ideal plan would meet projected demands and minimize adverse effects on currently used sources of potable, non-potable, and ecological water supplies. This report documents past and projected potable, non-potable, and ecological water-supply demands. Past and ongoing adverse effects to production and domestic wells caused by withdrawals include saltwater intrusion and water-level declines in the freshwater aquifers. Adverse effects on the ecological water supplies caused by groundwater withdrawals include premature drying of seasonal wetlands, delayed recovery of water levels in the water-table aquifer, and reduced streamflow. To predict the effects of future actions on the water supplies, three baseline and six future scenarios were created and simulated. Baseline Scenarios 1, 2, and 3 represent withdrawals using existing wells projected until 2050. Baseline Scenario 1 represents average 1998-2003 withdrawals, and Scenario 2 represents New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP) full allocation withdrawals. These withdrawals do not meet projected future water demands. Baseline Scenario 3 represents the estimated full build-out water demands. Results of simulations of the three baseline scenarios indicate that saltwater would intrude into the Cohansey aquifer as much as 7,100 feet (ft) to adversely affect production wells used by Lower Township and the Wildwoods, as well as some other near-shore domestic wells; water-level altitudes in the Atlantic City 800-foot sand would decline to -156 ft; base flow in streams would be depleted by 0 to 26 percent; and water levels in the water-table aquifer would decline as much as 0.7ft. [Specific water-level altitudes, land-surface altitudes, and present sea level when used in this report are referenced to the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88).] Future scenarios 4 to 9 represent withdrawals and the effects on the water supply while using estimated full build-out water demands. In most townships, existing wells would be used for withdrawals in the simulation. However, in Lower and Middle Townships, the Wildwoods, and the Cape Mays, withdrawals from some wells would be terminated, reduced, or increased. Depending on the scenario, proposed production wells would be installed in locations far from the saltwater fronts, in deep freshwater aquifers, in deeper saltwater aquifers, or proposed injection wells would be installed to inject reused water to create a freshwater barrier to saltwater intrusion. Simulations indicate that future Scenarios 4 to 9 would reduce many of the adverse effects of Scenarios 1, 2, and 3. No future scenario will minimize all adverse impacts. In Scenario 4, Lower Township would drill two production wells in the Cohansey aquifer farther from the Delaware shoreline than existing wells and reduce withdrawals from wells near the shoreline. Wildwood Water Utility (WWU) would reduce withdrawals from existing wells in the Cohansey aquifer and increase withdrawals from wells in the Rio Grande water-bearing zone. Results of the simulation indicate that saltwater intrusion and ecological-water supply problems would be reduced but not as much as in Scenarios 5, 7, 8, and 9. In Scenario 5, the Wildwoods and Lower Township each would install a desalination plant and drill two wells to withdraw saltwater from the Atlantic City 800-foot sand. Saltwater intrusion problems would be reduced to the greatest extent with this scenario. Ecological water supplies remain constant or decline from 2003 baseline values. Water-level altitudes would decline to -193 ft in the Atlantic City 800-foot sand, the deepest potentiometric level for all scenarios. In Scenario 6, Lower Township would build a tertiary treatment system and drill three wells open to the Cohanse

New Jersey↗

USGS2018

Effects of climate-related stream factors on patterns of individual summer growth of Cutthroat Trout

Coldwater fishes are sensitive to abiotic and biotic stream factors, which can be influenced by climate. Distributions of inland salmonids in North America have declined significantly, with many of the current strongholds located in small headwater systems that may serve as important refugia as climate change progresses. We investigated the effects of discharge, stream temperature, trout biomass, and food availability on summer growth of Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout Oncorhynchus clarkii bouvieri , a species of concern with significant ecological value. Individual size, stream discharge, sample section biomass, and temperature were all associated with growth, but had differing effects on energy allocation. Stream discharge had a positive relationship with growth rates in length and mass; greater rates of prey delivery at higher discharges probably enabled trout to accumulate reserve tissues in addition to structural growth. Temperature effects were positive but not significant, and support in growth models was limited, likely due to the cold thermal regimes of the study area. The strength of the discharge effect on growth suggests that climate adaptation strategies for coldwater fishes that focus solely on thermal characteristics may be misleading and highlights the importance of considering multiple factors, including hydrologic regimes, in conservation planning.

Montana, Wyoming↗

USGS2016

Recent changes in stream flashiness and flooding, and effects of flood management in North Carolina and Virginia

The southeastern United States has undergone anthropogenic changes in landscape structure, with the potential to increase (e.g., urbanization) and decrease (e.g., reservoir construction) stream flashiness and flooding. Assessment of the outcome of such change can provide insight into the efficacy of current strategies and policies to manage water resources. We (1) examined trends in precipitation, floods, and stream flashiness and (2) assessed the relative influence of land cover and flow-regulating features (e.g., best management practices and artificial water bodies) on stream flashiness from 1991 to 2013. We found mean annual precipitation decreased, which coincided with decreasing trends in floods. In contrast, stream flashiness, overall, showed an increasing trend during the period of study. However, upon closer examination, 20 watersheds showed stable stream flashiness, whereas 5 increased and 6 decreased in flashiness. Urban watersheds were among those that increased or decreased in flashiness. Watersheds that increased in stream flashiness gained more urban cover, lost more forested cover and had fewer best management practices installed than urban watersheds that decreased in stream flashiness. We found best management practices are more effective than artificial water bodies in regulating flashy floods. Flashiness index is a valuable and straightforward metric to characterize changes in streamflow and help to assess the efficacy of management interventions.

North Carolina, Virginia↗

USGS2014

West Nile Virus transmission in winter: the 2013 Great Salt Lake Bald Eagle and Eared Grebes Mortality event

West Nile Virus (WNV) infection has been reported in over 300 species of birds and mammals. Raptors such as eagles, hawks and falcons are remarkably susceptible, but reports of WNV infection in Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) are rare and reports of WNV infection in grebes (Podicipediformes) even rarer. We report an unusually large wild bird mortality event involving between 15,000-20,000 Eared Grebes (Podiceps nigricollis) and over 40 Bald Eagles around the Great Salt Lake, Utah, in November-December 2013. Mortality in grebes was first reported in early November during a period when the area was unseasonably warm and the grebes were beginning to gather and stage prior to migration. Ten out of ten Eared Grebes collected during this period were WNV RT-PCR and/or isolation positive. This is the first report of WNV infection in Eared Grebes and the associated mortality event is matched in scale only by the combined outbreaks in American White Pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) colonies in the north central states in 2002-2003. We cannot be sure that all of the grebes were infected by mosquito transmission; some may have become infected through contact with WNV shed orally or cloacally from other infected grebes. Beginning in early December, Bald Eagles in the Great Salt Lake area were observed to display neurological signs such as body tremors, limb paralysis and lethargy. At least 43 Bald Eagles had died by the end of the month. Nine of nine Bald Eagles examined were infected with WNV. To the best of our knowledge, this is the largest single raptor mortality event since WNV became endemic in the USA. Because the majority of the eagles affected were found after onset of below-freezing temperatures, we suggest at least some of the Bald Eagles were infected with WNV via consumption of infected Eared Grebes or horizontal transmission at roost sites.

PLOS Current Outbreaks↗