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USGS2018

The extreme space weather event in September 1909

We evaluate worldwide low-latitude auroral activity associated with the great magnetic storm of September 1909 for which a minimum Dst value of −595 nT has recently been determined. From auroral observations, we calculate that the equatorward boundary of the auroral oval in the 1909 event was in the range from 31°–35° invariant latitude (assuming auroral height of 400 km) to 37°–38° (800 km). These locations compare with satellite-based observations of precipitating auroral electrons down to 40° magnetic latitude for the March 1989 storm with its comparable minimum Dst value of −589 nT. According to Japanese auroral records, bluish colour started to appear first, followed by reddish colour. The colour change can be attributed to the transition from sunlit aurora to the usual low-latitude reddish aurora. Telegraph communications were disrupted at mid/low latitudes, coincidently with the storm main phase and the early recovery phase. The telegraphic disturbances were caused by geomagnetically induced currents associated with the storm-time ring current and substorm current wedge. From the calculated CME energy ─ based on the 24.75 hr separation between the flare-associated magnetic crochet and the geomagnetic storm sudden commencement and interplanetary conditions inferred from geomagnetic data ─ and consideration of the ∼−40 nT crochet amplitude, we estimated that the soft X-ray class of the 24 September 1909 flare was ≥X10. As is the case for other extreme storms, strong/sharp excursions in the horizontal component of the magnetic field observed at low-latitude magnetic stations were coincident with the observation of low-latitude aurora.

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society↗

USGS1998

Petrochemistry of late miocene peraluminous silicic volcanic rocks from the Morococala field, Bolivia

Late Miocene peraluminous volcanic rocks of the Morococala field, Bolivia, define a layered stratigraphy of basal andalusite-, biotite- (± muscovite)-bearing rhyolite tuffs (AR), overlain by cordierite-, biotite-bearing rhyolite tuffs (CR), and capped by biotite-bearing quartz latite tuffs, lavas, and late domal flows (QL). Mineral and whole-rock compositions become more evolved from top to bottom, with differentiation reflected by decreasing Ca, Ba, Mg, Fe, and rare earth elements (REE) versus increasing F, Na/K, and aluminosity from QL to AR. Mineral, whole-rock, and glass inclusion compositions are consistent with derivation of all three rock types from a single stratified magma reservoir, but age and spatial relations between the three units make this unlikely. Genesis of the QL involved biotite-dehydration melting of an aluminous source at T > 750°C and P ≥ = 4–6 kbar. If not co-magmatic with QL, the other units were generated primarily by muscovite-dehydration melting at T = 730–750°C and P ≥ = 3.5–4.5 kbar for CR, and T ≤ = 750°C for AR with pre-eruptive residence at low pressure (1.5–3.0 kbar). Low hematite contents (X Hem ≤ = 0.06) of ilmenite grains in AR, CR, and early grains (as inclusions in plagioclase and sanidine cores) in QL indicate reduced conditions imposed by a graphite-bearing source. Compositional variability among texturally later oxides (ilmenite with X Hem = 0.06–0.50, primary magnetite), however, apparently records progressive increases in pre-eruptive f(O 2 ) in QL. Plagioclase-melt equilibria and electron microprobe analysis difference for quartz-hosted glass inclusions suggest pre-eruptive melt H 2 O contents ≥ = 5–7 wt % for the AR, ∼4–6 wt % for the CR, and ∼3–5 wt % for the QL.

Journal of Petrology↗

USGS1969

Coexisting amphiboles from blueschist facies metamorphic rocks

Four pairs of associated calcic and sodic amphiboles from blueschist facies metamorphic rocks were analyzed with the electron microprobe and studied by single-crystal X-ray diffraction techniques. Except for ranges in the ratios Mg/(Mg+Fe) and Fe 3+ /(Fe 3+ +Al+Ti), the sodic amphiboles are similar in chemical composition. The amount of calcium in the M(4)-site ranges only from 0·18 to 0·21 ion per formula unit. The calcic amphiboles, in addition to a range in Mg/(Mg+Fe), vary in Na/(Na+Ca) ratio (0·29–0·48). Three of the calcic amphiboles contain less than 1·5 calcium ions per formula unit, indicating a significant solid solution of sodic amphibole components in the calcic amphibole phase. The a and b unit-cell parameters of the calcic amphiboles decrease with increased content of the sodic component.

Journal of Petrology↗

USGS1973

Oxidation during magmatic differentiation, Finnmarka Complex, Oslo area, Norway: Part 2, the mafic silicates

Electron-microprobe analyses are presented for pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite from monzonite, granodiorite, and granite at Finnmarka, Norway. Compositional trends measured in biotite, present in all three rock types, and in amphibole, present in the monzonite and granodiorite, are markedly atypical and are interpreted as reflecting crystallization under progressively more oxidizing conditions. The average Fe/Fe + Mg for biotites from successively more silicic rock types changes from 0.64 → 0.35 → 0.28, and for amphiboles changes from 0.58 in the monzonite to 0.29 in the granodiorite. Analyses of selected areas within amphibole grains in the granodiorite show marked chemical variations, although single-crystal X-ray photographs are sharp and do not reveal multiple phases. On the basis of 33 such analyses, four coupled substitutions are identified as operative; the most unusual finding is the relation of 1 Ti cation to 4 Al IV cations in the unit cell. Variations within individual amphibole grains of the granodiorite resemble changes noted in evolution of amphibole composition from monzonite to granodiorite and are interpreted as reflecting progressive oxidation. Consideration of these data for the mafic silicates, data for the opaque oxides, and the extensive formation of sphene in the granodiorite, has allowed development of schematic reactions and an overall picture of magmatic environment and evolution at Finnmarka. Crystallization apparently took place at PH 2 o of 1000 bars or less and a temperature of about 700 °C. The trend of oxidation during differentiation is more extreme than any heretofore reported. Amphiboles, as well as biotites, may participate in oxidation reactions and may reflect the oxidation-reduction processes that occurred during magmatic evolution.

Oslo↗

USGS2022

The geochemical and textural transition between the Reef Package and its hanging wall, Stillwater Complex, Montana, USA

The highest grade Pd-Pt deposit on Earth, the J-M Reef, is hosted in coarse-grained to pegmatoidal cumulates called the Reef Package. Decades of mine development of the J-M Reef have revealed that a distinct discontinuity in rock fabric marks the top of the rock unit that hosts economic-grade sulfide mineralization. Mine geologists refer to this discontinuity as the hanging wall contact. This contact is the top of the Reef Package and is always locatable—either by the change in rock fabric or by distinctive hanging wall textures of silicate minerals—even when the reef sulfide mineralization is absent. This rather subtle textural feature is used reliably by mine geologists to follow the Reef during exploration and mine development. Although some high tenor sulfides (>1000 ppm Pd in 100% sulfide) are found sporadically in the hanging wall cumulates, these accumulations are too small to be economically viable. We present quantitative rock fabric data for four Reef Package and hanging wall intersections collected by electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD). Plagioclase fabrics in the hanging wall are characterized by low variance in grain sizes and a strong point maximum concentration of (010) and a perpendicular girdle distribution of [100] consistent with an axial B-type fabric. These fabrics are indicative of either compaction of the crystal mush or crystal settling of nucleated crystals, the bulk magma in a chamber. Conversely, the fabrics of the Reef Package show higher variance grain in size distributions and weak to undeveloped preferred orientation of plagioclase crystals that did not undergo significant alignment or textural equilibration of plagioclase grains. The absence of foliation in the Reef Package stands in contrast both to hanging wall fabrics and to other reported EBSD datasets of plagioclase crystals orientations from the Bushveld Complex, the Skaergaard Intrusion, and the Rum Intrusion. Furthermore, plagioclase crystal size distributions for the Reef Package show flatter slopes and convex profiles with fewer crystals at small size fractions indicating the dissolution of small crystals during partial melting and textural coarsening (i.e . Ostwald ripening) and crystal growth. Crystal growth was favored over the nucleation of new crystals during prolonged interaction with a hot infiltrating melt into the resident mush resulting in the coarse-grained textures of the Reef Package cumulates. The hanging wall contact represents a boundary between partially remelted crystal mush of the Reef Package, where sulfide mineralization formed and accumulated, and an overlying essentially barren cumulate pile. The hanging wall cumulates formed following the cessation of footwall erosion and the resumption of crystal accumulation by normal magma chamber processes.

Montana↗

USGS2022

The Shallow Magmatic Plumbing System of the Deccan Traps, Evidence from Plagioclase Megacrysts and Their Host Lavas

We investigate the shallow plumbing system of the Deccan Traps Large Igneous Province using rock and mineral data from Giant Plagioclase Basalt (GPB) lava flows from around the entire province, but with a focus on the Saurashtra Peninsula, the Malwa Plateau, and the base and top of the Western Ghats (WG) lava pile. GPB lavas in the WG typically occur at the transition between chemically distinct basalt formations. Most GPB samples are evolved basalts, with high Fe and Ti contents, and show major and trace elements and Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic compositions generally similar to those of previously studied Deccan basalts. Major element modeling suggests that high-Fe, evolved melts typical of GPB basalts may derive from less evolved Deccan basalts by low-pressure fractional crystallization in a generally dry magmatic plumbing system. The basalts are strongly porphyritic, with 6–25% of mm- to cm-sized plagioclase megacrysts, frequently occurring as crystal clots, plus relatively rare olivine and clinopyroxene. The plagioclase crystals are mostly labradoritic, but some show bytownitic cores (general range of anorthite mol%: 78–55). A common feature is a strong Fe enrichment at the plagioclase rims, indicating interaction with an Fe-rich melt similar to that represented by the matrix compositions (FeOt up to 16–17 wt%). Plagioclase minor and trace elements and Sr isotopic compositions analyzed by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry show evidence of a hybrid and magma mixing origin. In particular, several plagioclase crystals show variable 87 Sr/ 86 Sr i , which only partially overlaps with the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr i of the surrounding matrix. Diffusion modeling suggests residence times of decades to centuries for most plagioclase megacrysts. Notably, some plagioclase crystal clots show textural evidence of deformation as recorded by electron back-scatter diffraction analyses and chemical maps, which suggest that the plagioclase megacrysts were deformed in a crystal-rich environment in the presence of melt. We interpret the plagioclase megacrysts as remnants of a crystal mush originally formed in the shallow plumbing system of the Deccan basalts. In this environment, plagioclase acquired a zoned composition due to the arrival of chemically distinct basaltic magmas. Prior to eruption, a rapidly rising but dense Fe-rich magma was capable of disrupting the shallow level crystal mush, remobilizing part of it and carrying a cargo of buoyant plagioclase megacrysts. Our findings suggest that basaltic magmas from the Deccan Traps, and possibly from LIPs in general, are produced within complex transcrustal magmatic plumbing systems with widespread crystal mushes developed in the shallow crust.

Journal of Petrology↗

USGS2022

Barometers behaving badly: Assessing the influence of analytical and experimental uncertainty on clinopyroxene thermobarometry calculations at crustal conditions

The composition of clinopyroxene and clinopyroxene-liquid (Cpx-Liq) pairs are frequently used to calculate crystallization/equilibration pressures in igneous systems. While canonical uncertainties are often assigned to calculated pressures based on fits to calibration or test datasets, the sources of these uncertainties (and thus ways to reduce them) have not been rigorously assessed. We show that considerable uncertainties in calculated pressures arise from analytical error associated with Electron Probe Microanalyser (EPMA) measurements of Cpx. Specifically, low X-ray counts during analysis of elements with concentrations <1 wt% resulting from insufficient count times and/or low beam currents yield highly imprecise measurements (1σ errors of 10–40% for Na 2 O).

Journal of Petrology↗

USGS2007

Observations of magnetite dissolution in poorly drained soils

Dissolution of strongly magnetic minerals is a common and relatively rapid phenomenon in poorly drained soils of the central United States, resulting in low magnetic susceptibility (MS). Low Eh reducing conditions are primarily responsible for magnetic mineral dissolution; a process likely mediated by iron-reducing bacteria in the presence of soil organic matter. Based on transects across drainage sequences from nine sites, natural magnetic minerals (>5 ??m) extracted from surface soil consist of 54% ?? 18% magnetite, 21% ?? 11% titanomagnetite, and 17% ?? 14% ilmenite. Magnetite and titanomagnetite dissolution, assessed by scanning electron microscopy on a 0-to-3 scale, inversely correlates with surface soil MS (r = 0.53), a proxy for soil drainage at studied transects. Altered magnetite typically displays etch pits <1-??m diameter, whereas titanomagnetite exhibits a latticework pattern of alteration along planes of crystallographic weakness (<1-??m spacing). Ilmenite, containing solely ferrous iron, is unaffected by reducing conditions, portraying mainly smooth-textured grains. Magnetic fractions (>5 ??m) include 26% ?? 18% anthropogenic fly ash that also exhibits greater dissolution in low MS soils (r = 0.38), indicating detectable alteration can occur within 150 years in low Eh soils. Laboratory induced reduction of magnetite, titanomagnetite, and magnetic fly ash, with a citrate-bicarbonate- dithionite solution, resulted in dissolution textures similar to those of in situ soil particles. Although experiments indicate that reductive dissolution of magnetite can occur abiotically under extreme conditions, bacteria likely play an important role in the natural environment. ?? 2007 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc.

Soil Science↗

USGS1997

Desulfuromonas thiophila sp. nov., a new obligately sulfur-reducing bacterium from anoxic freshwater sediment

A mesophilic, acetate-oxidizing, sulfur-reducing bacterium, strain NZ27(T), was isolated from anoxic mud from a freshwater sulfur spring. The cells were ovoid, motile, and gram negative. In addition to acetate, the strain oxidized pyruvate, succinate, and fumarate. Sulfur flower could be replaced by polysulfide as an electron acceptor. Ferric nitrilotriacetic acid was reduced in the presence of pyruvate; however, this reduction did not sustain growth. These phenotypic characteristics suggested that strain NZ27(T) is affiliated with the genus Desulfuromonas. A phylogenetic analysis based on the results of comparative 16S ribosomal DNA sequencing confirmed that strain NZ27(T) belongs to the Desulfuromonas cluster in the recently proposed family 'Geobacteraceae' in the delta subgroup of the Proteobacteria. In addition, the results of DNA-DNA hybridization studies confirmed that strain NZ27(T) represents a novel species. Desulfuromonas thiophila, a name tentatively used in previous publications, is the name proposed for strain NZ27(T) in this paper.

International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology↗

USGS1995

Extending and expanding the life of older current meters

The EG&G Model 610 VACM and Model 630 VMCM are standards for ocean current measurements. It is simple to add peripheral sensors to the data stream of the VACM by use of add-on CMOS circuitry. The firmware control of the VMCM makes it virtually impossible to add sampling of additional sensors. Most of the electronic components used in the VACM are obsolete or difficult to replace and the VMCM will soon follow suit. As a result, the USGS joined WHOI in the development of a PCMCIA data storage system to replace the cassette recording system in the VACM. Using the same PCMCIA recording package as the controller and recorder for the VMCM, a user-friendly VMCM is being designed. PCMCIA cards are rapidly becoming an industry standard with a wide range of storage capacities. By upgrading the VACM and VMCM to PCMCIA storage systems with a flexible microprocessor, they will continue to be viable instruments.

Conference Paper↗

USGS2004

JuxtaView - A tool for interactive visualization of large imagery on scalable tiled displays

JuxtaView is a cluster-based application for viewing ultra-high-resolution images on scalable tiled displays. We present in JuxtaView, a new parallel computing and distributed memory approach for out-of-core montage visualization, using LambdaRAM, a software-based network-level cache system. The ultimate goal of JuxtaView is to enable a user to interactively roam through potentially terabytes of distributed, spatially referenced image data such as those from electron microscopes, satellites and aerial photographs. In working towards this goal, we describe our first prototype implemented over a local area network, where the image is distributed using LambdaRAM, on the memory of all nodes of a PC cluster driving a tiled display wall. Aggressive pre-fetching schemes employed by LambdaRAM help to reduce latency involved in remote memory access. We compare LambdaRAM with a more traditional memory-mapped file approach for out-of-core visualization. ?? 2004 IEEE.

Conference Paper↗

USGS2009

Providing public standardized data access function: Lessons learned from accessing USGS Landsat archive

The geospatial community is experiencing a shift from having data locally to sharing them over the Web. However, not all the data accessing systems are built in compliance with open geospatial standards and thus are weak in terms of interoperability. The USGS Landsat data are now available through free electronic access though not yet through standard Web service interfaces. This paper intends to discuss the experience and lessons learned from integrating a public data access function to the USGS Landsat data archive into a geospatial workflow environment. Currently available systems and their problems, proposed solutions and application scenarios are discussed.

Conference Paper↗

USGS1995

Microwave radiometers and their application in field and aircraft campaigns for remote sensing of land and water surfaces

The paper presents an overview of the scientific investigations and practical applications of a group of specialists working in the Institute of Radioengineering and Electronics of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IRE RAS) with their partners in Russia and the USA in the area of passive microwave remote sensing as applied to the study of soil, vegetation and water bodies. Applications that are described include problems related to agriculture, land reclamation, water management, wetlands, and highways.

Conference Paper↗

USGS2003

Comparative alteration mineral mapping using visible to shortwave infrared (0.4-2.4 μm) Hyperion, ALI, and ASTER imagery

Advanced Land Imager (ALI), Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER), and Hyperion imaging spectrometer data covering an area in the Central Andes between Volcan Socompa and Salar de Llullaillaco were used to map hydrothermally altered rocks associated with several young volcanic systems. Six ALI channels in the visible and near-infrared wavelength range (0.4-1.0 ??m) were useful for discriminating between ferric-iron alteration minerals based on the spectral shapes of electronic absorption features seen in continuum-removed spectra. Six ASTER channels in the short wavelength infrared (1.0-2.5 ??m) enabled distinctions between clay and sulfate mineral types based on the positions of band minima related to Al-OH vibrational absorption features. Hyperion imagery embedded in the broader image coverage of ALI and ASTER provided essential leverage for calibrating and improving the mapping accuracy of the multispectral data. This capability is especially valuable in remote areas of the earth where available geologic and other ground truth information is limited.

IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing↗

USGS1982

Implementation of digital subtraction angiography with a synchrotron x-ray beam

The intense synchrotron radiation produced by wiggler magnets at electron storage rings provides a new source of x-rays highly suited to iodine K-edge digital subtraction angiography. The monochromaticity and tunability provide maximum sensitivity to intraarterial iodine and virtually eliminate contrast due to soft tissue and bone. Visualization of arteries, in particular the coronary arteries, by peripheral venous injection is possible. A system design, based on tests already performed, is presented.

IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science↗

USGS2022

Methanogenic archaea in subsurface coal seams are biogeographically distinct: An analysis of metagenomically-derived mcrA sequences

The production of methane as an end-product of organic matter degradation in the absence of other terminal electron acceptors is common, and has often been studied in environments such as animal guts, soils, and wetlands due to its potency as a greenhouse gas. To date however, the study of the biogeographic distribution of methanogens across coal seam environments has been minimal. Here, we show that coal seams are host to a diverse range of methanogens, which are distinctive to each geological basin. Based on comparisons to close relatives from other methanogenic environments, the dominant methanogenic pathway in these basins is hydrogenotrophic, with acetoclastic being a second major pathway in the Surat Basin. Finally, mcrA and 16S rRNA gene primer biases were predominantly seen to affect the detection of Methanocellales, Methanomicrobiales and Methanosarcinales taxa in this study. Subsurface coal methanogenic community distributions and pathways presented here provide insights into important metabolites and bacterial partners for in situ coal biodegradation.

Environmental Microbiology↗

USGS2019

Perspectives and challenges for the use of radar in biological conservation

Radar is at the forefront for the study of broad‐scale aerial movements of birds, bats and insects and related issues in biological conservation. Radar techniques are especially useful for investigating species which fly at high altitudes, in darkness, or which are too small for applying electronic tags. Here, we present an overview of radar applications in biological conservation and highlight its future possibilities. Depending on the type of radar, information can be gathered on local‐ to continental‐scale movements of airborne organisms and their behaviour. Such data can quantify flyway usage, biomass and nutrient transport (bioflow), population sizes, dynamics and distributions, times and dimensions of movements, areas and times of mass emergence and swarming, habitat use and activity ranges. Radar also captures behavioural responses to anthropogenic disturbances, artificial light and man‐made structures. Weather surveillance and other long‐range radar networks allow spatially broad overviews of important stopover areas, songbird mass roosts and emergences from bat caves. Mobile radars, including repurposed marine radars and commercially dedicated ‘bird radars’, offer the ability to track and monitor the local movements of individuals or groups of flying animals. Harmonic radar techniques have been used for tracking short‐range movements of insects and other small animals of conservation interest. However, a major challenge in aeroecology is determining the taxonomic identity of the targets, which often requires ancillary data obtained from other methods. Radar data have become a global source of information on ecosystem structure, composition, services and function and will play an increasing role in the monitoring and conservation of flying animals and threatened habitats worldwide.

Ecography↗

USGS2015

Dominance of 'Gallionella capsiferriformans' and heavy metal association with Gallionella -like stalks in metal-rich pH 6 mine water discharge

Heavy metal-contaminated, pH 6 mine water discharge created new streams and iron-rich terraces at a creek bank in a former uranium-mining area near Ronneburg, Germany. The transition from microoxic groundwater with ~5 m m Fe(II) to oxic surface water may provide a suitable habitat for microaerobic iron-oxidizing bacteria (FeOB). In this study, we investigated the potential contribution of these FeOB to iron oxidation and metal retention in this high-metal environment. We (i) identified and quantified FeOB in water and sediment at the outflow, terraces, and creek, (ii) studied the composition of biogenic iron oxides ( Gallionella -like twisted stalks) with scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM, TEM) as well as confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), and (iii) examined the metal distribution in sediments. Using quantitative PCR, a very high abundance of FeOB was demonstrated at all sites over a 6-month study period. Gallionella spp. clearly dominated the communities, accounting for up to 88% of Bacteria , with a minor contribution of other FeOB such as Sideroxydans spp. and ‘ Ferrovum myxofaciens ’. Classical 16S rRNA gene cloning showed that 96% of the Gallionella -related sequences had ≥97% identity to the putatively metal-tolerant ‘ Gallionella capsiferriformans ES-2’, in addition to known stalk formers such as Gallionella ferruginea and Gallionellaceae strain R-1. Twisted stalks from glass slides incubated in water and sediment were composed of the Fe(III) oxyhydroxide ferrihydrite, as well as polysaccharides. SEM and scanning TEM-energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy revealed that stalk material contained Cu and Sn, demonstrating the association of heavy metals with biogenic iron oxides and the potential for metal retention by these stalks. Sequential extraction of sediments suggested that Cu (52–61% of total sediment Cu) and other heavy metals were primarily bound to the iron oxide fractions. These results show the importance of ‘ G. capsiferriformans ’ and biogenic iron oxides in slightly acidic but highly metal-contaminated freshwater environments.

Geobiology↗