Search USGS⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search USGS

Results for “Marine Ecology”

Search indexed USGS publications on groundwater, aquifers, geologic maps, mineral resources and earthquakes. Explore source records by subject and place.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 775 records · Page 43Linked to original sources
USGS2018

DEEP SEARCH: Deep sea exploration to advance research on coral/canyon/cold seep habitats

Launched in August 2017, Deep Sea Exploration to Advance Research on Coral/Canyon/Cold seep Habitats (DEEP SEARCH) is a multiyear, multi-agency study to characterize the deep-sea ecosystems of the US Mid- and South Atlantic (Figure 1). The study is funded through an interagency partnership between NOAA, the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), and the US Geological Survey, and it is sponsored by the National Oceanographic Partnership Program. DEEP SEARCH will spend four and a half years (from 2017 to 2021) researching the habitats of the US Atlantic to better understand the distribution of sensitive seafloor communities to inform potential offshore energy development and other deep-sea management needs.

Oceanography↗
USGS2008

Tracking sea turtles in the Everglades

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has a long history of conducting research on threatened, endangered, and at-risk species inhabiting both terrestrial and marine environments, particularly those found within national parks and protected areas. In the coastal Gulf of Mexico region, for example, USGS scientist Donna Shaver at Padre Island National Seashore in Texas has focused on “headstarting” hatchlings of the rare Kemp’s ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempii). She is also analyzing trends in sea turtle strandings onshore and interactions with Gulf shrimp fisheries. Along south Florida’s Gulf coast, the USGS has focused on research and monitoring for managing the greater Everglades ecosystem. One novel project involves the endangered green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas). The ecology and movements of adult green turtles are reasonably well understood, largely due to decades of nesting beach monitoring by a network of researchers and volunteers. In contrast, relatively little is known about the habitat requirements and movements of juvenile and subadult sea turtles of any species in their aquatic environment.

Florida↗
USGS2024

Egg size scales negatively with system size in a periodic fish species

Optimal egg size theory implies that female organisms balance between fecundity and individual offspring investment according to their environment. Past interspecific studies suggest that fishes in large marine systems generally produce smaller eggs than those in small freshwater systems. We tested whether intraspecific egg size variation reflected a similar pattern by comparing egg size among yellow perch ( Perca flavescens ) populations inhabiting a range of system sizes. In 2018, 2019, and 2023, we collected yellow perch egg samples from 12 locations in systems ranging in surface area from 37 to 5,390,492 ha. First, we found that egg diameter significantly increased with maternal total length in five of eight individually tested populations. After accounting for these maternal effects, we found a significant interaction, where females inhabiting larger lakes, such as the main basins of Lakes Erie and Michigan, produced smaller eggs than those in smaller inland lakes, and the greatest differences were demonstrated among females of greater total length. This egg size variation in the largest females is consistent with interspecific egg size comparisons between marine and freshwater fishes. However, by examining a single species across vastly different environments, we were able to support theoretical expectations that maternal investment in offspring should vary with environmental conditions controlling early-life resource acquisition and competition.

Ecology and Evolution↗
USGS2013

Worldwide phylogenetic relationship of avian poxviruses

Poxvirus infections have been found in 230 species of wild and domestic birds worldwide in both terrestrial and marine environments. This ubiquity raises the question of how infection has been transmitted and globally dispersed. We present a comprehensive global phylogeny of 111 novel poxvirus isolates in addition to all available sequences from GenBank. Phylogenetic analysis of the Avipoxvirus genus has traditionally relied on one gene region (4b core protein). In this study we expanded the analyses to include a second locus (DNA polymerase gene), allowing for a more robust phylogenetic framework, finer genetic resolution within specific groups, and the detection of potential recombination. Our phylogenetic results reveal several major features of avipoxvirus evolution and ecology and propose an updated avipoxvirus taxonomy, including three novel subclades. The characterization of poxviruses from 57 species of birds in this study extends the current knowledge of their host range and provides the first evidence of the phylogenetic effect of genetic recombination of avipoxviruses. The repeated occurrence of avian family or order-specific grouping within certain clades (e.g., starling poxvirus, falcon poxvirus, raptor poxvirus, etc.) indicates a marked role of host adaptation, while the sharing of poxvirus species within prey-predator systems emphasizes the capacity for cross-species infection and limited host adaptation. Our study provides a broad and comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the Avipoxvirus genus, an ecologically and environmentally important viral group, to formulate a genome sequencing strategy that will clarify avipoxvirus taxonomy.

Journal of Virology↗
USGS2024

Discovery of giant and conventional magnetofossils bookending Cretaceous Oceanic Anoxic Event 2

Conventional magnetofossils are the remains of magnetotactic bacteria and giant magnetofossils are the remains of iron biomineralizing organisms that have not yet been identified. We report the oldest robust conventional and giant magnetofossil records, ~97 Ma, from marine sediments drilled in Holland Park, Virginia, USA. The Holland Park core records the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary and Oceanic-Anoxic Event 2 (OAE2). Magnetic datasets indicate single domain magnetite within the clay-rich sediments bookending OAE2. Electron microscopy images from these intervals highlight conventional and giant magnetofossil morphologies, including three potentially new giant magnetofossil morphologies: seeds, squash, and spades. There is an overall high abundance and morphological disparity of magnetofossils at Holland Park. However, we observe abundance, disparity, and preservation changes between the magnetofossil assemblages bookending OAE2. Our observations provide clues toward understanding the ecological thresholds of the enigmatic organisms that produce giant magnetofossils and evidence that magnetofossils may be widely distributed in the geologic record.

Virginia↗
USGS2005

Coastal change rates and patterns: Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park, Hawai'i

A collaborative project between the U.S. Geological Survey's Coastal and Marine Geology Program and the National Park Service (NPS) has been developed to create an inventory of geologic resources for National Park Service lands on the Big Island of Hawai'i. The NPS Geologic Resources Inventories are recognized as essential for the effective management, interpretation, and understanding of vital park resources. In general, there are three principal components of the inventories: geologic bibliographies, digital geologic maps, and geologic reports. The geologic reports are specific to each individual park and include information on the geologic features and processes that are important to the management of park resources, including ecological, cultural and recreational resources. This report summarizes a component of the geologic inventory concerned specifically with characterizing the coastal geomorphology of the beach system within Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park (NHP) and describes an analysis that utilizes georeferenced and orthorectified aerial photography to understand the spatial and temporal trends in shoreline change from 1950 to 2002. In addition, spatial patterns of beach change were examined and a beach stability map was developed. Both the shoreline change rates and the beach stability map are designed to help Park personnel effectively manage the valuable park resources within the context of understanding natural changes to the KAHO beach system.

Hawaii↗
USGS1990

Climatic influences on species: Evidence from the fossil record

The detailed Neogene and Quaternary paleoclimatic reconstructions now available provide a means to test how species respond to environmental change. Paleontologic studies of marine organisms show that climatic change causes evolution (via cladogenesis and anagenesis), ecophenotypic variation, migration, morphologic stasis and extinction. Evolution during climatic change is a rare event relative to the number of climatic cycles that have occurred, but climate-related environmental barriers, usually temperature, may play an important role in the isolation of populations during allopatric speciation.

Trends in Ecology and Evolution↗
USGS2018

Integrating encounter theory with decision analysis to evaluate collision risk and determine optimal protection zones for wildlife

1.Better understanding human‐wildlife interactions and their links with management can help improve the design of wildlife protection zones. One example is the problem of wildlife collisions with vehicles or human‐built structures (e.g. power lines, wind farms). In fact, collisions between marine wildlife and watercraft are among the major threats faced by several endangered species of marine mammals. Natural resource managers are therefore interested in finding cost‐effective solutions to mitigate these threats. 2.We combined abundance estimators with encounter rate theory to estimate relative lethal collision risk of the Florida manatee ( Trichechus manatus latirostris ) from watercraft. We first modeled seasonal abundance of watercraft and manatees using a Bayesian analysis of aerial survey count data. We then modeled relative lethal collision risk in space and across seasons. Finally, we applied decision analysis and Linear Integer Programming to determine the optimal design of speed zones in terms of relative risk to manatees and costs to waterway users. We used a Pareto efficient frontier approach to evaluate the performance of alternative zones, which included additional practical considerations (e.g. spatial aggregation of speed zones) in relation to the optimal zone configurations. 3.Under the various relationships for probability of death given strike speed that we considered, the current speed zones reduced the relative lethal collision risk by an average of 51.5% to 70% compared to the scenario in which all speed regulations were removed (i.e. the no‐protection scenario). We identified optimal zones and near‐optimal zones with additional management considerations that improved upon the current zones in terms of cost or relative risk. 4.Policy Implications : Our analytical framework combines encounter rate theory and decision analysis to quantify the effectiveness of speed zones protecting manatees while accounting for uncertainty. Our approach can be used to optimize the design of protection zones intended to reduce conflicts between human waterborne activity and marine mammals. This framework could be extended to address many other problems of human‐wildlife interactions, such as the optimal placement of wind farms to minimize collisions with wildlife or the optimal allocation of ranger effort to mitigate poaching threats.

Journal of Applied Ecology↗
USGS2006

An epizootic of Florida manatees associated with a dinoflagellate bloom

Over a 10-wk period in early 1982, 39 Florida manatees ( Trichechus manatus latirostris ) were found dead in the lower Caloosahatchee River and nearby waters of southwestern Florida. Two were killed by boats. The remainder showed no evidence of trauma. Lesions indicative of infectious agents were not identified, and bacteriological and contaminant residue findings were unremarkable. Nonspecific lesions of congestion and hemorrhage were identified in brain tissue. Numerous reports were also received of manatee morbidity. Some distressed manatees showed no biochemical lesions in clinical analyses of blood samples and recovered quickly. Timing of manatee illnesses coincided with fish and double-crested cormorant ( Phalacrocorax auritus ) mortality and morbidity. A widespread bloom of the dinoflagellate red tide organism ( Gymnodinium breve ) also coincided with these incidents. G. breve produces potent neurotoxins (brevetoxins). Circumstantial evidence links these events, and possible routes of exposure may include ingestion of filter-feeding ascidians. Ecological conditions that magnified the extent of the epizootic included an early dispersal of manatees into the area from a nearby winter aggregation site and unusually high salinities that facilitated the inshore spread of the red tide bloom. Management responses to future episodes of red tide in manatee areas are suggested.

Marine Mammal Science↗
USGS2024

Vegetation responses to large dam removal on the Elwha River, Washington, USA

Large dam removal can trigger changes to physical and biological processes that influence vegetation dynamics in former reservoirs, along river corridors downstream of former dams, and at a river’s terminus in deltas and estuaries. We present the first comprehensive review of vegetation response to major fluvial disturbance caused by the world’s largest dam removal. After being in place for nearly a century, two large dams were removed along the Elwha River, Washington, USA, between 2011 and 2014. The exposure, erosion, transport, and deposition of large volumes of sediment and large wood that were impounded behind the dams created new fluvial surfaces where plant colonization and growth have occurred. In the former reservoirs, dam removal exposed ~290 ha of unvegetated sediment distributed on three main landforms: valley walls, high terraces, and dynamic floodplains. In addition to natural revegetation in the former reservoirs, weed control and seeding and planting of desirable plants influenced vegetation trajectories. In early years following dam removal, ~20.5 Mt of trapped sediment were eroded from the former reservoirs and transported downstream. This sediment pulse, in combination with transport of large wood, led to channel widening, an increase in gravel bars, and floodplain deposition. The primary vegetation responses along the river corridor were a reduction in vegetated area associated with channel widening, plant establishment on new gravel bars, increased hydrochory, and altered plant community composition on gravel bars and floodplains. Plant species diversity increased in some river segments. In the delta, sediment deposition led to the creation of ~26.8 ha of new land surfaces and altered the distribution and dynamics of intertidal water bodies. Vegetation colonized ~16.4 ha of new surfaces: mixed pioneer vegetation colonized supratidal beach, river bars, and river mouth bars, and emergent marsh vegetation colonized intertidal aquatic habitats. In addition to the sediment-dominated processes that have created opportunities for plant colonization and growth, biological processes such as restored hydrochory and anadromous fish passage with associated delivery of marine-derived nutrients may influence vegetation dynamics over time. Rapid changes to landforms and vegetation growth were related to the large sediment pulse in the early years following dam removal, and the rate of change is expected to attenuate as the system adjusts to natural flow and sediment regimes.

Washington↗
USGS2018

BioTIME: A database of biodiversity time series for the Anthropocene

Motivation The BioTIME database contains raw data on species identities and abundances in ecological assemblages through time. These data enable users to calculate temporal trends in biodiversity within and amongst assemblages using a broad range of metrics. BioTIME is being developed as a community-led open-source database of biodiversity time series. Our goal is to accelerate and facilitate quantitative analysis of temporal patterns of biodiversity in the Anthropocene. Main types of variables included The database contains 8,777,413 species abundance records, from assemblages consistently sampled for a minimum of 2 years, which need not necessarily be consecutive. In addition, the database contains metadata relating to sampling methodology and contextual information about each record. Spatial location and grain BioTIME is a global database of 547,161 unique sampling locations spanning the marine, freshwater and terrestrial realms. Grain size varies across datasets from 0.0000000158 km 2 (158 cm 2 ) to 100 km 2 (1,000,000,000,000 cm 2 ). Time period and grain BioTIME records span from 1874 to 2016. The minimal temporal grain across all datasets in BioTIME is a year. Major taxa and level of measurement BioTIME includes data from 44,440 species across the plant and animal kingdoms, ranging from plants, plankton and terrestrial invertebrates to small and large vertebrates. Software format .csv and .SQL.

Global Ecology and Biogeography↗
USGS2017

Southern sea otter range expansion and habitat use in the Santa Barbara Channel, California

The re-colonization of the Santa Barbara channel by sea otters brings these ESA-listed marine mammals closer to active oil and gas production facilities, shipping lanes and naturally occurring oil and gas seeps. However, the degree to which sea otters may actually be affected by human-caused oil spills or exposure to natural oil seeps is currently unknown. Between 2012 and 2014, the U.S. Geological Survey and collaborating agencies conducted a telemetry-based study of sea otters in Santa Barbara channel, in order to provide critical information for resource managers (specifically the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, henceforth BOEM, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, henceforth USFWS) about the spatial ecology, population status, and potential population threats to sea otters in Santa Barbara Channel, with particular reference to exposure to manmade structures and sources of oil and natural gas. Analysis of spatial monitoring data using a Bayesian-based synoptic model allowed for description of sea otter home ranges, identification of hot-spots of use, and insights into habitat selection behavior by male and female sea otters. Important findings included the deeper modal depth preferred by males versus females, strong preferences by both sexes for areas with persistent kelp canopy, and greater use of soft-sediment areas by males. The synoptic model also provided the ability to predict population-level density distribution for each sex in new habitats: by calculating the value of these probability density distributions at the known locations of natural seeps, we were able to identify those seeps with higher potential for sea otter encounters. The relative probability of occurrence at locations near to some seeps was sufficiently high (about 1% likelihood of occurrence for some of our study animals) that one would anticipate occasional encounters. Data on male and female survival, reproductive success, activity budgets, and body condition all indicated that sea otters in Santa Barbara Channel are not resource limited, and thus we would expect to see continued strong population growth in this area. However, the principal cause of death for study animals was lethal bites by white sharks, suggesting that shark bite mortality represents the single biggest threat to continued population growth in the Santa Barbara Channel.

California↗
USGS2023

Planktic foraminifera

Planktic foraminifera are single-celled marine organisms that secrete calcium carbonate tests. They live in the ocean's photic zone, and when they die, their tests, each about the size of a grain of sand, collect on the ocean floor. The geographic distribution of planktic foraminifera is mostly governed by the temperature and salinity of the ocean surface, and species assemblages are generally arranged in latitudinal bands from polar to tropical, with more species occupying warmer waters. Their ubiquity in the world's oceans since the Cretaceous Period makes them ideal biostratigraphic markers, and their sensitivity to environmental changes makes them excellent proxies of past ecological, oceanographic and climatic history.

Book chapter↗
USGS2008

Estimates of Nutrient Loading by Ground-Water Discharge into the Lynch Cove Area of Hood Canal, Washington

Low dissolved oxygen concentrations in the waters of Hood Canal threaten marine life in late summer and early autumn. Oxygen depletion in the deep layers and landward reaches of the canal is caused by decomposition of excess phytoplankton biomass, which feeds on nutrients (primarily nitrogen compounds) that enter the canal from various sources, along with stratification of the water column that prevents mixing and replenishment of oxygen. Although seawater entering the canal is the largest source of nitrogen, ground-water discharge to the canal also contributes significant quantities, particularly during summer months when phytoplankton growth is most sensitive to nutrient availability. Quantifying ground-water derived nutrient loads entering an ecologically sensitive system such as Hood Canal is a critical component of constraining the total nutrient budget and ultimately implementing effective management strategies to reduce impacts of eutrophication. The amount of nutrients entering Hood Canal from ground water was estimated using traditional and indirect measurements of ground-water discharge, and analysis of nutrient concentrations. Ground-water discharge to Hood Canal is variable in space and time because of local geology, variable hydraulic gradients in the ground-water system adjacent to the shoreline, and a large tidal range of 3 to 5 meters. Intensive studies of ground-water seepage and hydraulic-head gradients in the shallow, nearshore areas were used to quantify the freshwater component of submarine ground-water discharge (SGD), whereas indirect methods using radon and radium geochemical tracers helped quantify total SGD and recirculated seawater. In areas with confirmed ground-water discharge, shore-perpendicular electrical resistivity profiles, continuous electromagnetic seepage-meter measurements, and continuous radon measurements were used to visualize temporal variations in ground-water discharge over several tidal cycles. The results of these field investigations show that ground-water discharge into the Lynch Cove area of Hood Canal is highly dynamic and strongly affected by the large tidal range. In areas with a steep shoreline and steep hydraulic gradient, ground-water discharge is spatially concentrated in or near the intertidal zone, with increased discharge during low tide. Topographically flat areas with weak hydraulic gradients had more spatial variability, including larger areas of seawater recirculation and more widely dispersed discharge. Measured total-dissolved-nitrogen concentrations in ground water ranged from below detection limits to 2.29 milligrams per liter and the total load entering Lynch Cove was estimated to be approximately 98 ? 10.3 metric tons per year (MT/yr). This estimate is based on net freshwater seepage rates from Lee-type seepage meter measurements and can be compared to estimates derived from geochemical tracer mass balance estimates (radon and radium) of 231 to 749 MT/yr, and previous water-mass-balance estimates (14 to 47 MT/ yr). Uncertainty in these loading estimates is introduced by complex biogeochemical cycles of relevant nutrient species, the representativeness of measurement sites, and by energetic dynamics at the coastal aquifer-seawater interface caused by tidal forcing.

Scientific Investigations Report↗
USGS2022

Puget Sound Spatially Referenced Regression on Watershed Attributes (SPARROW)

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) and the Washington State Department of Ecology (Ecology) are collaborating on the development of refined, seasonal load estimates of total nitrogen and total phosphorus within watersheds draining to Washington waters of the Salish Sea for the period 2005-2020. The modeling approach for this work is based on SPARROW (Spatially Referenced Regression on Watershed Attributes), a watershed modeling technique developed by the USGS. SPARROW is typically used to estimate stream loads throughout a stream network. The estimated loads will be used within the context of the Puget Sound Nutrient Source Reduction Project to evaluate the influence of watershed contributions of nutrients throughout the stream network and to marine waters. This quality assurance project plan (QAPP) contains details about the technical approach, observational data, spatial and temporal source data, limitations, and quality assurance procedures that will be employed to develop the SPARROW models so that they can be used to inform additional actions to address excess nutrients.

Washington↗
USGS2023

Assessment of recovery potential for the American horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus): An application of the IUCN green status process

According to an International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List assessment (RLA), the American horseshoe crab ( Limulus polyphemus ), an iconic coastal species, is at risk of extirpation in some regions within its range where small and vulnerable populations occur. However, the RLA does not consider future status beyond viability and does not attempt to identify the conservation necessary to effectively mitigate threats and recover the species to full ecological functionality. To aid in conservation planning for vulnerable species, the IUCN developed the Green Status of Species assessment (GSA) process to complement the RLA. This paper describes the application of the GSA process to assess the recovery potential of the American horseshoe crab. First, specific Limulus populations within spatial units for conservation were delineated, and their statuses were defined based on viability and ecological functionality. Then conservation actions were identified that would promote recovery and affect their near- and long-term population status under different conservation scenarios. Horseshoe crab conservation has relied on, and will continue to depend on, effective harvest regulation. However, as currently conceived, conservation is not expected to mitigate habitat loss at the scale required to restore range-wide ecological functionality, primarily because habitat loss is widespread and affected by climate change. Thus, the GSA results, while indicating that there is potential for near-term recovery gains, reveal that long-term recovery is in doubt owing to expected loss of habitat. To conserve critical habitats for spawning and early life stages and achieve ecological functionality, it is imperative to identify and develop conservation plans at appropriate spatial scales. Unfortunately, such plans do not currently exist and need to be established. The GSA Green Score can then serve as a metric for monitoring recovery and gauging the effectiveness of conservation implementation.

Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosys↗
USGS2023

Effect of straying, reproductive strategies, and ocean distribution on the structure of American shad populations

The use of species distribution models has proliferated, providing insights for sustainable management of migratory species in a globally changing environment. However, many of these models are based on statistical relationships developed from historical conditions that may not perform well under changing or even analogous conditions caused by climate change. In this paper, we used a mechanistic species distribution model called GR3D (Global Repositioning Dynamics for Diadromous Fish Distribution) to examine the integrated dynamics of American shad ( Alosa sapidissima ) populations across their native range along the Eastern U.S. coast, where the species demonstrates latitudinal variations in life histories and reproductive strategies. The initial design of the model was adapted to incorporate region-specific parameterization to fit the species ecology. Then, a sensitivity analysis was performed to test the influences of uncertain processes regarding American shad distribution at sea, straying and reproduction on key characteristics of the species distribution. The sensitivity analysis showed the influence of the Allee effect (i.e., “depensatory” process) and the homing rate (i.e., fidelity to the breeding sites) on the probability of presence and abundances among catchments and metapopulations estimated by the model. Contrary to the homing rate, the distance of straying did not change the estimated number of metapopulations or abundances. Homing strength, however, was quite influential. The integration of complex migration patterns during the marine phase (i.e., wintering and summering offshore areas) provided more likely estimates of the species' overall distribution. Overall, our study illustrated the utility of incorporating factors governing the large-scale distribution of migratory species to improve local management.

Ecosphere↗
USGS2015

Implementation of a framework for multi-species, multi-objective adaptive management in Delaware Bay

Decision analytic approaches have been widely recommended as well suited to solving disputed and ecologically complex natural resource management problems with multiple objectives and high uncertainty. However, the difference between theory and practice is substantial, as there are very few actual resource management programs that represent formal applications of decision analysis. We applied the process of structured decision making to Atlantic horseshoe crab harvest decisions in the Delaware Bay region to develop a multispecies adaptive management (AM) plan, which is currently being implemented. Horseshoe crab harvest has been a controversial management issue since the late 1990s. A largely unregulated horseshoe crab harvest caused a decline in crab spawning abundance. That decline coincided with a major decline in migratory shorebird populations that consume horseshoe crab eggs on the sandy beaches of Delaware Bay during spring migration. Our approach incorporated multiple stakeholders, including fishery and shorebird conservation advocates, to account for diverse management objectives and varied opinions on ecosystem function. Through consensus building, we devised an objective statement and quantitative objective function to evaluate alternative crab harvest policies. We developed a set of competing ecological models accounting for the leading hypotheses on the interaction between shorebirds and horseshoe crabs. The models were initially weighted based on stakeholder confidence in these hypotheses, but weights will be adjusted based on monitoring and Bayesian model weight updating. These models were used together to predict the effects of management actions on the crab and shorebird populations. Finally, we used a dynamic optimization routine to identify the state dependent optimal harvest policy for horseshoe crabs, given the possible actions, the stated objectives and our competing hypotheses about system function. The AM plan was reviewed, accepted and implemented by the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission in 2012 and 2013. While disagreements among stakeholders persist, structured decision making enabled unprecedented progress towards a transparent and consensus driven management plan for crabs and shorebirds in Delaware Bay.

Biological Conservation↗