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At least 775 records · Page 43Linked to original sources
USGS2019

Glacier retreat in Glacier National Park, Montana

Currently, the volume of land ice on Earth is decreasing, driving consequential changes to global sea level and local stream habitat. Glacier retreat in Glacier National Park, Montana, U.S.A., is one example of land ice loss and glacier change. The U.S. Geological Survey Benchmark Glacier Project conducts glaciological research and collects field measurements across select North American glaciers, including Sperry Glacier located in Glacier National Park. These records provide direct evidence of glacier change. The amount and timing of Earth’s land ice that will be lost in the future depends on the future trajectory of greenhouse gas emissions. Ongoing glaciological research will enhance physical understanding and forecasting capabilities; however, the continued retreat and ice mass loss of small glaciers in Glacier National Park is certain.

Montana↗
USGS2015

Evaluating connection of aquifers to springs and streams, Great Basin National Park and vicinity, Nevada

Federal agencies that oversee land management for much of the Snake Range in eastern Nevada, including the management of Great Basin National Park by the National Park Service, need to understand the potential extent of adverse effects to federally managed lands from nearby groundwater development. As a result, this study was developed (1) to attain a better understanding of aquifers controlling groundwater flow on the eastern side of the southern part of the Snake Range and their connection with aquifers in the valleys, (2) to evaluate the relation between surface water and groundwater along the piedmont slopes, (3) to evaluate sources for Big Springs and Rowland Spring, and (4) to assess groundwater flow from southern Spring Valley into northern Hamlin Valley. The study focused on two areas—the first, a northern area along the east side of Great Basin National Park that included Baker, Lehman, and Snake Creeks, and a second southern area that is the potential source area for Big Springs. Data collected specifically for this study included the following: (1) geologic field mapping; (2) drilling, testing, and water quality sampling from 7 test wells; (3) measuring discharge and water chemistry of selected creeks and springs; (4) measuring streambed hydraulic gradients and seepage rates from 18 shallow piezometers installed into the creeks; and (5) monitoring stream temperature along selected reaches to identify places of groundwater inflow. The Snake Range was formed by a generally normal-faulted uplift, where late Proterozoic and Cambrian siliciclastic rocks and metamorphic rocks are present at the highest altitudes and younger Paleozoic carbonate rocks are exposed along the flanks. The consolidated rocks are intruded by Jurassic to Tertiary age plutons, which are most common between the Lehman and Snake Creek drainage basins. Older Cenozoic rocks, including Oligocene volcanic rocks and Miocene sedimentary rocks, crop out locally and fill the basins that underlie Snake, Spring, and Hamlin Valleys. Younger Tertiary and Quaternary sedimentary (basin-fill) deposits overlie the older Cenozoic rocks. The rocks and deposits can be divided into three distinct aquifers. These aquifers include (1) basin-fill aquifers that consist of the permeable parts of the Cenozoic basin fill and some fractured or jointed Cenozoic volcanic rocks, (2) an upper carbonate-rock aquifer that consists of upper Paleozoic carbonate rocks overlying a regionally extensive middle Paleozoic siliciclastic confining unit, and (3) a lower carbonate-rock aquifer that consists of lower Paleozoic carbonate rocks. Secondary openings created by faults, shear zones, fractures, and, in the carbonate rocks, karst solution features, largely determine the water-transmitting properties of the volcanic- and carbonate-rock aquifers. The basin-fill aquifers are composed of a wide variety of rock types and have highly variable hydraulic properties. The three aquifers are stratigraphically and structurally heterogeneous, causing large variations in the ability to store and transmit water. The aquifers are separated by confining units in some areas and are in contact with each other in other areas, yet function as a single, composite aquifer system. Basin-fill aquifers most often overlie or adjoin the lower and upper carbonate-rock aquifers. Baker, Lehman and Snake Creek drainage basins were divided into five hydrologic zones on the basis of climate, geology, and topography. The five zones, from highest to lowest altitudes, are the mountain-upland, karst-limestone, upper-piedmont, lower-piedmont, and valley-lowland zones. The primary hydrologic connection between the mountain-upland and the valley-lowland zones is streamflow. Much of the streamflow from the mountain-upland zone is generated above tree line. Groundwater flow increases in the karst-limestone zone because of increased permeability caused by dissolution, which results in increased streamflow losses. Most of the increased groundwater flow is to springs near faults that form the boundary with the upper-piedmont zone. Thus, groundwater flow from the karst-limestone zone to the upper-piedmont zone was only 10 percent of the combined flow of streams and springs that exit the karst-limestone zone. About 60 percent of the water flowing from Rowland Spring in the Lehman Creek drainage basin was from streamflow losses along Baker Creek. The remaining flow from Rowland Spring comes from local recharge in the karst-limestone zone. In the upper-piedmont zone, the water table by Baker, Lehman and Snake Creeks was near the water level in the creeks for several hundred feet downstream from the karst-limestone zone. Water levels in piezometers along Snake Creek downstream from its confluence with Spring Creek were far below the streambed, indicating gravity drainage beneath this section of the creek. Estimated vertical hydraulic conductivity along a 3-mile reach of Snake Creek downstream of this confluence was 0.5 foot per day, which was an order of magnitude less than that estimated for Baker and Lehman Creeks. The low vertical hydraulic conductivity in the streambed along the lower reaches of Snake Creek results from chemical precipitation of calcite caused by off-gassing of carbon dioxide derived from springs at the end of the karst-limestone zone. The younger alluvial deposits thicken rapidly across faults that form the upper boundary of the lower-piedmont zone. The absence of springs or groundwater flow to the creeks upstream of these faults indicates they are not a complete barrier to groundwater flow. The water table was shallow in the valley-lowland zone in the Baker and Lehman Creek drainage basins, whereas the water table was more than 50 feet below land surface in the Snake Creek drainage basin. In contrast to thick basin fill in the valley-lowland zone in the Baker and Lehman Creek drainage basins, fractured and karst limestone underlie basin fill at relatively shallow depths in Snake Creek drainage basin. The underlying limestone acts as a drain for groundwater in the basin fill beneath Snake Creek. A groundwater divide in southern Spring Valley south of Baking Powder Flat separates groundwater flow to the flat from southeastward flow into northern Hamlin Valley. Groundwater flow from southern Spring Valley south of the groundwater divide into northern Hamlin Valley was estimated to range from 6,000 to 11,000 acre-feet per year. This groundwater does not flow to Big Springs in southern Snake Valley; rather, the source of water to Big Springs is groundwater recharge in the Big Spring Wash drainage basin and in nearby smaller drainage basins at the south end of the Snake Range. Groundwater flow from southern Spring Valley continues through the western side of Hamlin Valley before being directed northeast toward the south end of Snake Valley. This flow is constrained by southward-flowing groundwater from Big Spring Wash and northward-flowing groundwater beneath central Hamlin Valley. The redirection to the northeast corresponds to a narrowing of the width of flow in southern Snake Valley caused by a constriction formed by a steeply dipping middle Paleozoic siliciclastic confining unit exposed in the flanks of the mountains and hills on the east side of southern Snake Valley and shallowly buried beneath basin fill in the valley. The narrowing of groundwater flow could be responsible for the large area where groundwater flows to springs or is lost to evapotranspiration between Big Springs in Nevada and Pruess Lake in Utah.

Nevada↗
USGS2007

Water-Quality Characteristics for Sites in the Tongue, Powder, Cheyenne, and Belle Fourche River Drainage Basins, Wyoming and Montana, Water Years 2001-05, with Temporal Patterns of Selected Long-Term Water-Quality Data

Water-quality sampling was conducted regularly at stream sites within or near the Powder River structural basin in northeastern Wyoming and southeastern Montana during water years 2001-05 (October 1, 2000, to September 30, 2005) to characterize water quality in an area of coalbed natural gas development. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality, characterized the water quality at 22 sampling sites in the Tongue, Powder, Cheyenne, and Belle Fourche River drainage basins. Data for general hydrology, field measurements, major-ion chemistry, and selected trace elements were summarized, and specific conductance and sodium-adsorption ratios were evaluated for relations with streamflow and seasonal variability. Trend analysis for water years 1991-2005 was conducted for selected sites and constituents to assess change through time. Average annual runoff was highly variable among the stream sites. Generally, streams that have headwaters in the Bighorn Mountains had more runoff as a result of higher average annual precipitation than streams that have headwaters in the plains. The Powder River at Moorhead, Mont., had the largest average annual runoff (319,000 acre-feet) of all the sites; however, streams in the Tongue River drainage basin had the highest runoff per unit area of the four major drainage basins. Annual runoff in all major drainage basins was less than average during 2001-05 because of drought conditions. Consequently, water-quality samples collected during the study period may not represent long-term water-quality con-ditions for all sites. Water-quality characteristics were highly variable generally because of streamflow variability, geologic controls, and potential land-use effects. The range of median specific-conductance values among sites was smallest in the Tongue River drainage basin. Median values in that basin ranged from 643 microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius (?S/cm at 25?C) on the Tongue River to 1,460 ?S/cm at 25?C on Prairie Dog Creek. The Tongue River drainage basin has the largest percentage of area underlain by Mesozoic-age and older rocks and by more resistant rocks. In addition, the higher annual precipitation and a steeper gradient in this basin compared to basins in the plains produce relatively fast stream velocities, which result in a short contact time between stream waters and basin materials. The Powder River drainage basin, which has the largest drainage area and most diverse site conditions, had the largest range of median specific-conductance values among the four major drainage basins. Median values in that basin ranged from 680 ?S/cm at 25?C on Clear Creek to 5,950 ?S/cm at 25?C on Salt Creek. Median specific-conductance values among sites in the Cheyenne River drainage basin ranged from 1,850 ?S/cm at 25?C on Black Thunder Creek to 4,680 ?S/cm at 25?C on the Cheyenne River. The entire Cheyenne River drainage basin is in the plains, which have low precipitation, soluble geologic materials, and relatively low gradients that produce slow stream velocities and long contact times. Median specific-conductance values among sites in the Belle Fourche River drainage basin ranged from 1,740 ?S/cm at 25?C on Caballo Creek to 2,800 ?S/cm at 25?C on Donkey Creek. Water in the study area ranged from a magnesium-calcium-bicarbonate type for some sites in the Tongue River drainage basin to a sodium-sulfate type at many sites in the Powder, Cheyenne, and Belle Fourche River drainage basins. Little Goose Creek, Goose Creek, and the Tongue River in the Tongue River drainage basin, and Clear Creek in the Powder River drainage basin, which have headwaters in the Bighorn Mountains, consistently had the smallest median dissolved-sodium concentrations, sodium-adsorption ratios, dissolved-sulfate concentrations, and dissolved-solids concentrations. Salt Creek, Wild Horse Creek, Little Powder River, and the Cheyenne River, which have headwat

Scientific Investigations Report↗
USGS2021

Riverscape nesting dynamics of Neosho Smallmouth Bass: To cluster or not to cluster?

Aim Hierarchical stream habitat conditions influence patterns of fish abundance and population dynamics. The spawning period is important for stream fishes but coincides with unpredictable environmental conditions and stressors. Thus, identifying habitats that confer suitable spawning is crucial to managing vulnerable fish populations, including narrow-range endemics. Here, we evaluate reach- and catchment-scale habitat features related to Neosho Smallmouth Bass ( Micropterus dolomieu velox ) nest presence, abundance and aggregations (clusters) and quantify nest microhabitat. Location Ozark Highlands ecoregion, USA. Methods We conducted snorkel and habitat surveys from 2016 to 2018 to quantify nest abundance, describe nest cluster characteristics and quantify nest microhabitat. We used field-collected and geospatial variables and developed generalized mixed models to evaluate the influence of multi-scale habitat features on nest cluster presence and nest abundance. Results Nest clusters, scarcely known for other Smallmouth Bass populations, contained 25% of all documented nests. Presence of nests was more likely in warmer stream reaches with wide, shallow channels and more pool habitat. Nest cluster presence was more likely with greater nest densities and earlier in the spawning season. The abundance of Smallmouth Bass nests was related to several reach-scale habitat conditions, with greater nest counts in warmer reaches and reaches with deeper pool habitat. Regardless of cluster behaviour, nesting Smallmouth Bass used similar microhabitats, including a range of depths (0.26–1.85 m), low velocities (<0.1 m/s) and typically gravel substrates. Main conclusions Our results indicate plasticity in nesting ecology within Neosho Smallmouth Bass populations and highlight the need to consider multiple aspects of stream habitat when developing conservation and management plans. The importance of reach-scale habitat features suggests it may be important to limit landscape and channel alterations. Nest clustering behaviour suggests these populations may be vulnerable to human influence during the nesting season, but also provides management opportunities for protection during critical time periods.

Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri, Oklahoma↗
USGS2025

Toward an efficient framework for remote sensing of river bathymetry: Comparing sensors and algorithms on an inaccessible proglacial river in Alaska

Remote sensing can provide reliable information on river depths and this approach might be particularly valuable in areas that are difficult to survey via conventional field methods. In this study, we assessed the potential to map the bathymetry of an inaccessible proglacial river in Alaska from both aerial orthophotos and a multispectral satellite image. In addition, we evaluated a variety of depth retrieval algorithms with different input data requirements, including some methods that require field measurements of water depth for calibration and other techniques that can be applied even when such field data are not available. These approaches might enable more efficient use of remote sensing methods by resource management agencies. Our results suggest that bathymetric mapping along the turquoise-colored river we examined was not only feasible but highly accurate ( R 2 up to 0.94) for both types of image data. Algorithms that use paired observations of depth and reflectance to train depth retrieval models were the most accurate, with errors on the order of 15%–20% and little or no bias. Alternative techniques based on hydraulic and statistical concepts also led to strong agreement between predicted and observed depths but were more susceptible to systematic biases toward under- or over-estimation of depth. In contrast to clear-flowing streams, bathymetric mapping in this environment was enabled by a direct relationship between the depth and brightness of the water due to scattering by suspended sediment. In selecting an appropriate depth retrieval method, a compromise might need to be reached between the level of field effort invested and the accuracy of the resulting image-derived bathymetry. Standalone software for implementing these techniques is freely available.

Alaska↗
USGS2007

Geochemical effects of induced stream-water and artificial recharge on the Equus Beds Aquifer, South-Central Kansas, 1995-2004

Artificial recharge of the Equus Beds aquifer is part of a strategy implemented by the city of Wichita, Kansas, to preserve future water supply and address declining water levels in the aquifer of as much as 30 feet caused by withdrawals for water supply and irrigation since the 1940s. Water-level declines represent a diminished water supply and also may accelerate migration of saltwater from the Burrton oil field to the northwest and the Arkansas River to the southwest into the freshwater of the Equus Beds aquifer. Artificial recharge, as a part of the Equus Beds Ground-Water Recharge Project, involves capturing flows larger than base flow from the Little Arkansas River and recharging the water to the Equus Beds aquifer by means of infiltration or injection. The geochemical effects on the Equus Beds aquifer of induced stream-water and artificial recharge at the Halstead and Sedgwick sites were determined through collection and analysis of hydrologic and water-quality data and the application of statistical, mixing, flow and solute-transport, and geochemical model simulations. Chloride and atrazine concentrations in the Little Arkansas River and arsenic concentrations in ground water at the Halstead recharge site frequently exceeded regulatory criteria. During 30 percent of the time from 1999 through 2004, continuous estimated chloride concentrations in the Little Arkansas River at Highway 50 near Halstead exceeded the Secondary Drinking-Water Regulation of 250 milligrams per liter established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Chloride concentrations in shallow monitoring wells located adjacent to the stream exceeded the drinking-water criterion five times from 1995 through 2004. Atrazine concentrations in water sampled from the Little Arkansas River had large variability and were at or near the drinking-water Maximum Contaminant Level of 3.0 micrograms per liter as an annual average established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Atrazine concentrations were much smaller than the drinking-water criterion and were detected at much smaller concentrations in shallow monitoring wells and diversion well water located adjacent to the stream probably because of sorption on aquifer sediment. Before and after artificial recharge, large, naturally occurring arsenic concentrations in the recharge water for the Halstead diversion well and recharge site exceeded the Maximum Contaminant Level of 10 micrograms per liter established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for drinking water. Arsenic and iron concentrations decreased when water was recharged through recharge basins or a trench; however, chemical precipitation and potential biofouling eventually may decrease the artificial recharge efficiency through basins and trenches. At the Sedgwick site, chloride concentrations infrequently exceeded regulatory criteria. Large concentrations of atrazine were treated to decrease concentrations to less than regulatory criteria. Recharge of treated stream water through recharge basins avoids potentially large concentrations of arsenic and iron that exist at the Halstead diversion site. Results from a simple mixing model using chloride as a tracer indicated that the water chemistry in shallow monitoring well located adjacent to the Little Arkansas River was 80 percent of stream water, demonstrating effective recharge of the alluvial aquifer by the stream. Results also indicated that about 25 percent of the water chemistry of the diversion well water was from the shallow part of the aquifer. Additionally, diverting water through a diversion well located adjacent to the stream removed about 75 percent of the atrazine, probably through sorption to aquifer sediment, and decreased the need for additional water treatment to remove atrazine.

Kansas↗
USGS1996

Level II scour analysis for Bridge 23 (HARDTH00530023) on Town Highway 53, crossing Haynesville Brook, Hardwick, Vermont

This report provides the results of a detailed Level II analysis of scour potential at structure HARDTH00530023 on Town Highway 53 crossing Haynesville Brook, Hardwick, Vermont (figures 1–8). A Level II study is a basic engineering analysis of the site, including a quantitative analysis of stream stability and scour (U.S. Department of Transportation, 1993). Results of a Level I scour investigation also are included in Appendix E of this report. A Level I investigation provides a qualitative geomorphic characterization of the study site. Information on the bridge, gleaned from Vermont Agency of Transportation (VTAOT) files, was compiled prior to conducting Level I and Level II analyses and is found in Appendix D. The site is in the New England Upland section of the New England physiographic province in north-central Vermont. The 14.2-mi 2 drainage area is in a predominantly rural and forested basin. In the vicinity of the study site, the predominate surface cover consists of field grasses except for the upstream left bank with is brush covered. In the study area, Haynesville Brook has a sinuous channel with a slope of approximately 0.004 ft/ft, an average channel top width of 39 ft and an average channel depth of 2 ft. Stream-bed material at the site ranged from silt to gravel with a median grain size (D50) of 49.9 mm (0.164ft). The geomorphic assessment at the time of the Level I and Level II site visit on July 27, 1995, indicated that the reach was laterally unstable. Channel scour in both the upstream and downstream reaches as well as irregular point bars and cut banks and upstream anabranching led to this assessment. The Town Highway 53 crossing of Haynesville Brook is a 33-ft-long, one-lane bridge consisting of one 26-foot steel-beam span (Vermont Agency of Transportation, written communication, March 24, 1994). The bridge is supported by vertical, concrete abutments with no wingwalls. The concrete may be facing over the original stone abutments. Sheet piling has been driven around the base of each abutment and is filled with concrete. The channel is skewed approximately 10 degrees to the opening; the opening-skew-to-roadway is also 10 degrees. Additional details describing conditions at the site are included in the Level II Summary and Appendices D and E. Scour depths and rock rip-rap sizes were computed using the general guidelines described in Hydraulic Engineering Circular 18 (Richardson and others, 1995). Total scour at a highway crossing is comprised of three components: 1) long-term streambed degradation; 2) contraction scour (due to accelerated flow caused by a reduction in flow area at a bridge) and; 3) local scour (caused by accelerated flow around piers and abutments). Total scour is the sum of the three components. Equations are available to compute depths for contraction and local scour and a summary of the results of these computations follows. Contraction scour for all modelled flows ranged from 0.0 to 2.0 ft. The worst-case contraction scour occurred at the 100-year discharge. Abutment scour ranged from 7.0 to 12.9 ft. The worst-case abutment scour occurred at the 500-year discharge. Additional information on scour depths and depths to armoring are included in the section titled “Scour Results”. Scoured-streambed elevations, based on the calculated scour depths, are presented in tables 1 and 2. A cross-section of the scour computed at the bridge is presented in figure 8. Scour depths were calculated assuming an infinite depth of erosive material and a homogeneous particle-size distribution. It is generally accepted that the Froehlich equation (abutment scour) gives “excessively conservative estimates of scour depths” (Richardson and others, 1995, p. 47). Usually, computed scour depths are evaluated in combination with other information including (but not limited to) historical performance during flood events, the geomorphic stability assessment, existing scour protection measures, and the results of the hydraulic analyses. Therefore, scour depths adopted by VTAOT may differ from the computed values documented herein.

Vermont↗
USGS2013

A GIS and statistical approach to identify variables that control water quality in hydrothermally altered and mineralized watersheds, Silverton, Colorado, USA

Hydrothermally altered bedrock in the Silverton mining area, southwest Colorado, USA, contains sulfide minerals that weather to produce acidic and metal-rich leachate that is toxic to aquatic life. This study utilized a geographic information system (GIS) and statistical approach to identify watershed-scale geologic variables in the Silverton area that influence water quality. GIS analysis of mineral maps produced using remote sensing datasets including Landsat Thematic Mapper, advanced spaceborne thermal emission and reflection radiometer, and a hybrid airborne visible infrared imaging spectrometer and field-based product enabled areas of alteration to be quantified. Correlations between water quality signatures determined at watershed outlets, and alteration types intersecting both total watershed areas and GIS-buffered areas along streams were tested using linear regression analysis. Despite remote sensing datasets having varying watershed area coverage due to vegetation cover and differing mineral mapping capabilities, each dataset was useful for delineating acid-generating bedrock. Areas of quartz–sericite–pyrite mapped by AVIRIS have the highest correlations with acidic surface water and elevated iron and aluminum concentrations. Alkalinity was only correlated with area of acid neutralizing, propylitically altered bedrock containing calcite and chlorite mapped by AVIRIS. Total watershed area of acid-generating bedrock is more significantly correlated with acidic and metal-rich surface water when compared with acid-generating bedrock intersected by GIS-buffered areas along streams. This methodology could be useful in assessing the possible effects that alteration type area has in either generating or neutralizing acidity in unmined watersheds and in areas where new mining is planned.

Colorado↗
USGS2013

Frequency and Severity of Trauma in Fishes Subjected to Multiple-pass Depletion Electrofishing

The incidence and severity of trauma associated with multiple-pass electrofishing and the effects on short-term (30-d) survival and growth of Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss, Brook Trout Salvelinus fontinalis, and five representative co-inhabiting nontarget or bycatch species were examined. Fish were held in four rectangular fiberglass tanks (190 × 66 cm) equipped with electrodes, a gravel–cobble stream substrate, and continuous water flow. Fish were exposed to one, two, or three electroshocks (100-V, 60-Hz pulsed DC) spaced 1 h apart or were held as a control. The heterogeneous field produced a mean (±SD) voltage gradient of 0.23 ± 0.024 V/cm (range = 0.20–0.30 V/cm) with a duty cycle of 30% and a 5-s exposure. Radiographs of 355 fish were examined for evidence of spinal injuries, and necropsies were performed on 303 fish to assess hemorrhagic trauma in soft tissue. Using linear regression, we demonstrated significant relationships between the number of electrical shocks and the frequency and severity of hemorrhagic and spinal trauma in each of the nontarget species (Potomac Sculpin Cottus girardi, Channel Catfish Ictalurus punctatus, Fathead Minnow Pimephales promelas, Green Sunfish Lepomis cyanellus, and Largemouth Bass Micropterus salmoides). Most of the injuries in these species were either minor or moderate. Rainbow Trout and Brook Trout generally sustained the highest incidence and severity of injuries, but those injuries were generally independent of the number of treatments. The 30-d postshock survival for the trout species was greater than 94%; survival for the bycatch species ranged from 80% (Fathead Minnow) to 100% (Green Sunfish and Channel Catfish). There were no significant differences in 30-d postshock condition factors despite observations of altered feeding behavior lasting several days to 1 week posttreatment in several of the study species.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗
USGS2005

Implementation and use of direct-flow connections in a coupled ground-water and surface-water model

The U.S. Geological Survey's MODFLOW finite-difference ground-water flow model has been coupled with three surface-water packages - the MODBRANCH, River, and Stream packages - to simulate surface water and its interaction with ground water. Prior to the development of the coupling packages, the only interaction between these modeling packages was that leakage values could be passed between MODFLOW and the three surface-water packages. To facilitate wider and more flexible uses of the models, a computer program was developed and added to MODFLOW to allow direct flows or stages to be passed between any of the packages and MODFLOW. The flows or stages calculated in one package can be set as boundary discharges or stages to be used in another package. Several modeling packages can be used in the same simulation depending upon the level of sophistication needed in the various reaches being modeled. This computer program is especially useful when any of the River, Stream, or MODBRANCH packages are used to model a river flowing directly into or out of wetlands in direct connection with the aquifer and represented in the model as an aquifer block. A field case study is shown to illustrate an application.

Groundwater↗
USGS2007

Infiltration of atrazine and metabolites from a stream to an alluvial aquifer

ABSTRACT: The infiltration of atrazine, deethylatrazine, and deisopropylatrazine from Walnut Creek, a tributary stream, to the alluvial valley aquifer along the South Skunk River in central Iowa occurred where the stream transects the river's flood plain. A preliminary estimate indicated that the infiltration was significant and warrants further investigation. Infiltration was estimated by measuring the loss of stream discharge in Walnut Creek and the concentrations of atrazine and its metabolites deethylatrazine and deisopropylatrazine, in ground water 1 m beneath the streambed. Infiltration was estimated before application of agrichemicals to the fields during a dry period on April 7, 1994, and after application of agrichemicals during a period of small runoff on June 8, 1994. On April 7, the flux of atrazine, deethylatrazine, and deisopropylatrazine from Walnut Creek into the alluvial valley aquifer ranged from less than 10 to 60 (μg/d)/m 2 , whereas on June 8 an increased flux ranged from 270 to 3060 (μg/d)/m 2 . By way of comparison, the calculated fluxes of atrazine beneath Walnut Creek, for these two dates, were two to five orders of magnitude greater than an estimated flux of atrazine to ground water caused by leaching from a field on a per-unit-area basis. Furthermore, the unit-area flux rates of water from Walnut Creek to the alluvial valley aquifer were about three orders of magnitude greater than estimated recharge to the alluvial aquifer from precipitation. The large flux of chemicals from Walnut Creek to the alluvial valley aquifer was due in part to the conductive streambed and rather fast ground water velocities; average vertical hydraulic conductivity through the streambed was calculated as 35 and 90 m/d for the two sampling dates, and estimated ground water velocities ranged from 1 to 5 m/d.

Journal of the American Water Resources Associatio↗
USGS1941

Geologic structure and occurrence of gas in part of southwestern New York

The area covered by this report is in southwestern New York and includes a little more than 3,000 square miles in Steuben and Yates counties and parts of the six adjacent counties. This area has been mapped to determine the structural attitude of the exposed rocks, so as to aid those interested in prospecting for natural gas in the Oriskany sandstone of Lower Devonian age. Because of the gentle regional dip toward the southwest, the youngest beds are exposed in the southwest corner of the area, and progressively older beds crop out northeastward in successive bands that strike generally northwest. All the exposed rocks are of Upper Devonian age except those in a narrow belt at the extreme north edge of the area, where a small thickness of Middle Devonian rocks crops out. The maximum thickness of beds so exposed is nearly 4,000 feet, of which the lower part is predominantly soft dark shale and the upper part predominantly fine-grained sandstone and gray shale. All the beds are marine except a few tongues of continental deposits—red shale and sandstone and gray mudstone—in the youngest beds. All the beds thicken southeastward, so that there is a northwestward convergence between any two lithologic units in the series. More than 30 key horizons that are persistent and distinctive were mapped, and altitudes on these key horizons served as a basis for constructing the structure contour map. Many of the key horizons are formation or member boundaries, but others are the tops or bottoms of limestone or sandstone beds within formations. All the stratigraphic units mapped are purely lithologic. (See pl. 2.) The Tully limestone, which crops out along the northern border of the area, is an easily recognizable and therefore valuable key bed for subsurface correlations in this part of the State. Below the Tully limestone is a thick body of Middle Devonian shales of the Hamilton group which rests on another valuable key bed, the hard, cherty Onondaga limestone, also of Middle Devonian age. Below the Onondaga limestone is the Lower Devonian Oriskany sandstone, which is the gas-producing bed. Unlike the Onondaga, the Oriskany is locally thin or absent. The structure of most of the area is shown by contour lines at 25-foot intervals, but, where key horizons are lacking the structure is indicated by dip symbols. Upon the regional south and southwest dip are superposed numerous gentle folds whose axes trend approximately northeastward in the greater part of the area but more nearly eastward in the eastern part. The folds generally tend to become narrower and steeper, and therefore more closely spaced, southwestward. Many of the anticlines fork southwestward, whereas the synclines tend to fork northeastward. All the folds have a westward or southwestward plunge. Throughout the area the rocks are jointed in two dominant sets—one that trends northwest and the other east or northeast. No evident relation between these joints, which were measured only in the hard, relatively brittle beds, and the individual folds or domes was discernible. The faults are concentrated in the northeastern and southwestern parts of the area and trend either northeastward or northwestward. Some are nearly vertical normal faults ; others are steep reverse faults. Subsurface data show that most of the faults increase in throw downward and also that many subsurface faults do not reach the surface. A group of faults in the northwestern part of the Greenwood quadrangle and the southwestern part of the Hornell quadrangle were active during Upper Devonian time, while the Gowanda shale and overlying beds were being deposited. At this stratigraphic horizon the beds in a zone a few hundred feet thick are highly deformed in a wide belt on both sides of the faults. Sandstone layers are thinned out into long stringers or swollen into thick masses and in places are bent acutely without fracture. Thin layers of shale, coquina, and sand have flowed together into intricately plicated zones that lack cleavage and joints. These features show that the sediments were deformed while wet and plastic and buried only a little way below the sea floor. The beds that were laid down over these disturbed zones were not involved in this deformation. Many of the sharper flexures and most of the faults are not evident in the beds several hundred feet stratigraphically higher. Accordingly, broad, gentle folds in these higher beds in parts of the area south and west of the northwest corner of the Greenwood quadrangle may conceal, at considerable depths below them, narrow folds separated by abrupt flexures or faults. Several of the larger streams and rivers occupy strike valleys, and their courses swing to follow the changing strike of the rocks where they cross successive folds. But, with few exceptions, the small streams are not adjusted to the bedrock structure. Domes likely to serve as traps for natural gas are concentrated in the northeastern and southwestern parts of the area. The Wayne-Dundee gas field is in the northeastern part. All the other potentially valuable domes in this part of the area have been drilled and found valueless except one small structural feature in the southern part of the Ovid quadrangle, which, if the Oriskany is present, may trap a small quantity of gas. In the Greenwood quadrangle in the southwestern part of the area there is one gas field and four well-defined domes, all of which may be productive if the Oriskany sandstone is present. In the northwest corner of the quadrangle the dips indicate at least two domes that can be adequately defined and evaluated only by geophysical prospecting. The State Line gas field is in the Wellsville quadrangle. In the southeast corner of this quadrangle there are three other domes of comparable size that may also be productive if underlain by the Oriskany sandstone. At other places in the Wellsville quadrangle the dips suggest several anticlinal axes on which analogous productive domes may be found. The structural features in this quadrangle, however, are defined by contours only in the southeastern part. In the Woodhull quadrangle a large dome east of Jasper may be productive, and the western top of the large Wood-hull dome in the southwestern part of the quadrangle seems to warrant drilling, despite the absence of the Oriskany in a well on the eastern top. Two wells drilled in 1936 and 1937 a little northeast of a broad, nearly flat-topped dome in the Hornell quadrangle, a few miles east of Hornell, struck small flows of gas, suggesting that wells drilled higher on this dome may be productive. In much of the southwestern part of the area seismograph surveys should be of great value in determining the structure at the Tully and Onondaga horizons. Without abundant subsurface control of this sort, the danger of drilling into subsurface faults can hardly be overemphasized. Three closed or nearly closed synclines in the Greenwood and Wellsville quadrangles appear to be favorable places to drill for oil in the shallow sands— presumably parts of the Dunkirk sandstone.

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USGS1941

Geologic structure and occurrence of gas in part of southwestern New York. Part 1, Structure and gas possibilities of the Oriskany sandstone in Steuben, Yates, and parts of the adjacent counties

The area covered by this report is in southwestern New York and includes a little more than 3,000 square miles in Steuben and Yates counties and parts of the six adjacent counties. This area has been mapped to determine the structural attitude of the exposed rocks, so as to aid those interested in prospecting for natural gas in the Oriskany sandstone of Lower Devonian age. Because of the gentle regional dip toward the southwest, the youngest beds are exposed in the southwest corner of the area, and progressively older beds crop out northeastward in successive bands that strike generally northwest. All the exposed rocks are of Upper Devonian age except those in a narrow belt at the extreme north edge of the area, where a small thickness of Middle Devonian rocks crops out. The maximum thickness of beds so exposed is nearly 4,000 feet, of which the lower part is predominantly soft dark shale and the upper part predominantly fine-grained sandstone and gray shale. All the beds are marine except a few tongues of continental deposits red shale and sandstone and gray mudstone in the youngest beds. All the beds thicken southeastward, so that there is a northwestward convergence between any two lithologic units in the series. More than 30 key horizons that are persistent and distinctive were mapped, and altitudes on these key horizons served as a basis for constructing the structure contour map. Many of the key horizons are formation or member boundaries, but others are the tops or bottoms of limestone or sandstone beds within formations. All the stratigraphic units mapped are purely lithologic. (See pi. 2.) The Tully limestone, which crops out along the northern border of the area, is an easily recognizable and therefore valuable key bed for subsurface correlations in this part of the State. Below the Tully limestone is a thick body of Middle Devonian shales of the Hamilton group which rests on another valuable key bed, the hard, cherty Onondaga limestone, also of Middle Devonian age. Below the Onondaga limestone is the Lower Devonian Oriskany sandstone, which is the gas-producing bed. Unlike the Onondaga, the Oriskany is locally thin or absent. The structure of most of the area is shown by contour lines at 25-foot intervals, but where key horizons are lacking the structure is indicated by dip symbols. Upon the regional south and southwest dip are superposed numerous gentle folds whose axes trend approximately northeastward in the greater part of the area but more nearly eastward in the eastern part. The folds generally tend to become narrower and steeper, and therefore more closely spaced, southwestward. Many of the anticlines fork southwestward, whereas the synclines. tend to fork northeastward. All the folds have a westward or southwestward plunge. Throughout the area the rocks are jointed in two dominant sets one that trends northwest and the other east or northeast. No evident relation .between these joints, which were measured only in the hard, relatively brittle beds, and the individual folds or domes was discernible. The faults are concentrated in the northeastern and southwestern parts of the area and trend either northeastward or northwestward. Some are nearly vertical normal faults; others are steep reverse faults. Subsurface data show that most of the faults increase in throw downward and also that many subsurface faults do not reach the surface. A group of faults in the northwestern part of the Greenwood quadrangle and the southwestern part of the Hornell quadrangle were active during Upper Devonian time, while the Gowanda shale and overlying beds were being deposited. At this stratigraphic horizon the beds in a zone a few hundred feet thick are highly deformed in a wide belt on both sides of the faults. Sandstone layers are thinned out into long stringers or swollen into thick masses and in places are bent acutely without fracture. Thin layers of shale, coquina, and sand have flowed together into intricately plicated zones that lack cleavage and joints. These features show that the sediments were deformed while wet and plastic and buried only a little way below the sea floor. The beds that were laid down over these disturbed zones were not involved in this deformation. Many of the sharper flexures and most of the faults are not evident in the beds several hundred feet stratigraphically higher. Accordingly, broad, gentle folds in these higher beds in parts of the area south and west of the northwest corner of the Greenwood quadrangle may conceal, at considerable depths below them, narrow folds separated by abrupt flexures or faults. Several of the larger streams and rivers occupy strike valleys, and their j courses swing to follow the changing strike of the rocks where they cross ( successive folds. But, with few exceptions, the small streams are not adjusted to the bedrock structure. Domes likely to serve as traps for natural gas are concentrated in the northeastern and southwestern parts of the area. The Wayne-Dundee gas field is in the northeastern part. All the other potentially valuable domes in this part of the area have been drilled and found valueless except one small structural feature in the southern part of the Ovid quadrangle, which, if the Oriskany is present, may trap a small quantity of gas. In the Greenwood quadrangle in the southwestern part of the area there is one gas field and four well-defined domes, all of which may be productive if the Oriskany sandstone is present. In the northwest corner of the quadrangle the dips indicate at least two domes that can be adequately defined and evaluated only by geophysical prospecting. The State Line gas field is in tbe Wellsville quadrangle. In the southeast corner of this quadrangle there are three other domes of comparable size that may also be productive if underlain by the Oriskany sandstone. At other places in the Wellsville quadrangle the dips suggest several anticlinal axes on which analogous productive domes maybe found. The structural features in this quadrangle, however, are defined by contours only in the southeastern part. In the Woodhull quadrangle a large dome east of Jasper may be productive, and the western top of the large Woodhull dome in the southwestern part of the quadrangle seems to warrant drilling, despite the absence of the Oriskany in a well on the eastern top. Two wells drilled in 1936 and 1937 a little northeast of a broad, nearly flat-topped dome in the Hornell quadrangle, a few miles east of Hornell,, struck small flows of gas, suggesting that wells drilled higher on this dome may be productive. In much of the southwestern part of the area seismograph surveys should be of great value in determining the structure at the Tully and Onondaga horizons. Without abundant subsurface control of this sort, the danger of drilling into subsurface faults can hardly be overemphasized. Three closed or nearly closed synclines in the Greenwood and Wellsville quadrangles appear to be favorable places to drill for oil in the shallow sands presumably parts of the Dunkirk sandstone.

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