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USGS2021

California and Landsat

California has remarkable geographic diversity, from 1,100 miles of Pacific shoreline to 33 million acres of trees, including its famous redwood forests along the Pacific Coast Highway, U.S. Route 101. And although California’s nickname is “The Golden State," it may also deserve the title of “The Extreme State.” Mount Whitney, the highest peak in the conterminous United States, stands at 14,494 feet above sea level in the Sierra Nevada mountain range. Just 2.5 hours away by car, Death Valley’s Badwater Basin boasts the lowest point in the United States: 282 feet below sea level. Although hundreds of inches of snow fall on Mount Whitney each year, the rainfall in Death Valley, commonly called the hottest place on Earth, averages less than 2 inches. California is the most populous U.S. State with 39 million residents, 26 million of whom live near the coast. It’s also the most agriculturally productive State, raising a variety of fruits, vegetables, nuts, grains, grasses, and flowers in addition to dairy and livestock. Although climate change affects many of these people, production, and places, Landsat can help agencies and residents monitor their landscapes and plan for a resilient future.

California↗
USGS2016

A plan for study of hexavalent chromium, CR(VI) in groundwater near a mapped plume, Hinkley, California, 2016

The Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) Hinkley compressor station, in the Mojave Desert 80 miles northeast of Los Angeles, is used to compress natural gas as it is transported through a pipeline from Texas to California. Between 1952 and 1964, cooling water used at the compressor station was treated with a compound containing chromium to prevent corrosion. After cooling, the wastewater was discharged to unlined ponds, resulting in contamination of soil and groundwater in the underlying alluvial aquifer (Lahontan Regional Water Quality Control Board, 2013). Since 1964, cooling-water management practices have been used that do not contribute chromium to groundwater. In 2007, a PG&E study of the natural background concentrations of hexavalent chromium, Cr(VI), in groundwater estimated average concentrations in the Hinkley area to be 1.2 micrograms per liter (μg/L), with a 95-percent upper-confidence limit of 3.1 μg/L (CH2M-Hill, 2007). The 3.1 μg/L upper-confidence limit was adopted by the Lahontan Regional Water Quality Control Board (RWQCB) as the maximum background concentration used to map the plume extent. In response to criticism of the study’s methodology, and an increase in the mapped extent of the plume between 2008 and 2011, the Lahontan RWQCB (Lahontan Regional Water Quality Control Board, 2012) agreed that the 2007 PG&E background-concentration study be updated. The purpose of the updated background study is to evaluate the presence of natural and man-made Cr(VI) near Hinkley, Calif. The study also is to estimate natural background Cr(VI) concentrations in the aquifer upgradient and downgradient from the mapped Cr(VI) contamination plume, as well as in the plume and near its margins. The study was developed by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in collaboration with a technical working group (TWG) composed of community members, the Independent Review Panel (IRP) Manager (Project Navigator, Ltd.), the Lahontan RWQCB, PG&E, and consultants for PG&E.&E.

California↗
USGS1980

Flood-prone area maps of three sites along the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, Alaska

The Bureau of Land Management requested on May 3, 1979 that the U.S. Geological Survey determine the base (100-year) flood-plain limits at three sites (fig. 1) along the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System Highway (Haul Road) between the Yukon River and Prudhoe Bay in order to issue land-use permits. The Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (ADOT) has constructed maintenance camps at Coldfoot and adjacent to the Jim River near Pump Station 5. The site along the Sagavanirktok River near Pump Station 3 is under consideration as a site for potential development. An analysis of the flood data available at nearby gaging stations, at prior flood-survey sites, and from regional flood analyses was made. The discharge of the 100-year flood was calculated for the three sites using methods described by U.S. Water Resources Council (WRC, 1977) and given in Lamke (1979). Next field examination was made of the sites. Flood-deposited debris upon the overbank flood-ways was used to determine elevations of the maximum evident flood at the three flood-prone sites mapped. The maximum evident floodmarks for these floods were at elevations and locations which indicated that they were independent of ice scars. Ice scars higher than the highest flood debris were found at the Jim River site. Flood evidence of recent peaks was also used as an aid in determining the base flood boundaries. These limits have been delineated on aerial photographs of the sites. Surveying was limited to that necessary to adequately define the base flood boundaries; step-backwater computations were not made. Although some additional pertinent information is shown on the photographs, no attempt was made to delineate areas of inadequate local drainage or seasonal problems of high ground-water tables. Aerial photographs of the three sites were obtained from North Pacific Aerial Survey, Inc., with the permission of Alaskan Natural Gas Transportation Co. One photograph was obtained from Air Photo Tech, Inc., with the permission of Aleyska Pipeline Service Co.

Alaska↗
USGS2015

Geology of Joshua Tree National Park geodatabase

The database in this Open-File Report describes the geology of Joshua Tree National Park and was completed in support of the National Cooperative Geologic Mapping Program of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and in cooperation with the National Park Service (NPS). The geologic observations and interpretations represented in the database are relevant to both the ongoing scientific interests of the USGS in southern California and the management requirements of NPS, specifically of Joshua Tree National Park (JOTR). Joshua Tree National Park is situated within the eastern part of California’s Transverse Ranges province and straddles the transition between the Mojave and Sonoran deserts. The geologically diverse terrain that underlies JOTR reveals a rich and varied geologic evolution, one that spans nearly two billion years of Earth history. The Park’s landscape is the current expression of this evolution, its varied landforms reflecting the differing origins of underlying rock types and their differing responses to subsequent geologic events. Crystalline basement in the Park consists of Proterozoic plutonic and metamorphic rocks intruded by a composite Mesozoic batholith of Triassic through Late Cretaceous plutons arrayed in northwest-trending lithodemic belts. The basement was exhumed during the Cenozoic and underwent differential deep weathering beneath a low-relief erosion surface, with the deepest weathering profiles forming on quartz-rich, biotite-bearing granitoid rocks. Disruption of the basement terrain by faults of the San Andreas system began ca. 20 Ma and the JOTR sinistral domain, preceded by basalt eruptions, began perhaps as early as ca. 7 Ma, but no later than 5 Ma. Uplift of the mountain blocks during this interval led to erosional stripping of the thick zones of weathered quartz-rich granitoid rocks to form etchplains dotted by bouldery tors—the iconic landscape of the Park. The stripped debris filled basins along the fault zones. Mountain ranges and basins in the Park exhibit an east-west physiographic grain controlled by left-lateral fault zones that form a sinistral domain within the broad zone of dextral shear along the transform boundary between the North American and Pacific plates. Geologic and geophysical evidence reveal that movement on the sinistral faults zones has resulted in left steps along the zones, resulting in the development of sub-basins beneath Pinto Basin and Shavers and Chuckwalla Valleys. The sinistral fault zones connect the Mojave Desert dextral faults of the Eastern California Shear Zone to the north and east with the Coachella Valley strands of the southern San Andreas Fault Zone to the west. Quaternary surficial deposits accumulated in alluvial washes and playas and lakes along the valley floors; in alluvial fans, washes, and sheet wash aprons along piedmonts flanking the mountain ranges; and in eolian dunes and sand sheets that span the transition from valley floor to piedmont slope. Sequences of Quaternary pediments are planed into piedmonts flanking valley-floor and upland basins, each pediment in turn overlain by successively younger residual and alluvial surficial deposits.

California↗
USGS2025

Insights and strategic opportunities from the USGS 2024 Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Interagency Workshop

Introduction In 2021, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) published Circular 1490 titled, “Integrated Science for the Study of Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in the Environment: A Strategic Science Vision for the U.S. Geological Survey” (Tokranov and others, 2021). Circular 1490 was created to be a resource for USGS scientists prioritizing and planning research related to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and to be a guide for developing partnerships with other scientists, State and Federal agencies, and stakeholders engaged in PFAS research and management and mitigation of the environmental and human-health effects of PFAS. This USGS PFAS Strategic Science Vision document was intended to be the foundation for a “living strategic vision,” periodically providing updates on the state of USGS PFAS research, emerging PFAS data gaps and needs, and progress on interagency and stakeholder PFAS partnerships and priorities. To meet this objective, the USGS planned to host an Interagency and Stakeholder PFAS Workshop every 2–3 years. During September 10–12, 2024, the USGS hosted the first Interagency and Stakeholder PFAS Workshop in Reston, Virginia. The Workshop brought together experts from other Federal agencies (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Food and Drug Administration, Department of Defense [Air Force, Army]), State agencies (Washington Fish and Wildlife, Virginia Department of Transportation), and academia (Harvard University, University of Maryland) to address key challenges relating to the measurement and modeling of PFAS and the implications for environmental health. Participants engaged in in-depth discussions centered around six pivotal topics related to PFAS: (1) sampling protocols, methods and interpretation; (2) environmental sources, source apportionment, and occurrence; (3) environmental fate and transport; (4) human and wildlife exposure routes and risk; (5) bioconcentration, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification; and (6) ecotoxicology and effects. Each topic had three breakout sessions. A recurrent theme of workshop discussions was how data on a nationwide scale for PFAS occurrence in various environmental matrices, including air, water, food crops, biota, soil, and streambed sediment could help to advance scientific understanding. Participants noted significant geospatial data gaps, particularly in the midwestern and southern United States and the Pacific Northwest. PFAS data collection tends to be more robust along the eastern seaboard and in California. Participants stressed how enhancing the integration of large and small datasets across various agencies could help to support national scale understanding of PFAS. To address these gaps, attendees suggested leveraging datasets from Federal entities like the USGS and the U.S. Department of Defense, State agencies, and municipal utility services to develop predictive contaminant detection and transport models. Improved coordination between water quality programs and USGS research could help to facilitate access to valuable data, leading to comprehensive databases that inform PFAS point (wastewater treatment plants and landfills) and nonpoint (runoff from land, atmospheric deposition, food packaging) sources, environmental transport mechanisms, environmental detection and concentrations, potential exposure routes, and health effects on different biota, including humans. A specific request was made to develop a map demarking the depth of modern (1953 or later) groundwater, which is susceptible to surface-derived anthropogenic (that is, human-made) contamination, based on tritium-age dating. Emphasis was placed on incorporation of hydrology, groundwater flow paths, groundwater–surface water interactions, and landscape factors in predictive statistical models as a step to improve contaminant source identification and tracking. Molecular fingerprinting approaches garnered attention as techniques to link specific PFAS mixtures detected in a sample to environmental sources and levels in biota (Dávila-Santiago and others, 2022). Integrating data from abiotic (that is, water, soil, and air) and biotic (that is, living organisms) systems identified as a research opportunity. For example, understanding the composition of soils and sediments, which include a mixture of mineral, plant, and animal components, could advance understanding of exposure pathways. The discussions highlighted opportunities to explore and understand the potential redistribution and biotic exposures of PFAS from biosolid and wastewater treatment plant effluent land application practices, in addition to atmospheric releases and discharges from landfill and wastewater treatment plants. Participants identified research gaps surrounding how these sources may contribute to contamination and may affect surrounding ecosystems, including a better definition of anthropogenic background concentrations. Moving forward, the collection of co-occurrence data was noted as a means to improve understanding of complex mixtures and to leverage companion modeling efforts focused on areas with high and low contamination levels to identify areas of concern and unaffected resources. Participants emphasized how centralized USGS databases and the establishment of sample-metadata archives can help to ensure that samples are preserved and accessible for future research. In conclusion, the workshop participants identified opportunities to bridge data gaps and improve measurement techniques, modeling frameworks, databases, and communication, to enhance the understanding of PFAS and their effects on environmental and human health. Upon completion of the workshop, participants indicated an interest in developing strategic data collection, modeling, and analytical approaches to address these challenges.

Open-File Report↗
USGS1949

Index of surface-water records, part 12, Pacific slope basins in Washington and upper Columbia River basin, to September 30, 1948

The groundwater resources of Wood County, Wisconsin, are described. Groundwater is pumped only from wells drilled in Precambrian rock in the northern two-thirds of the county. The generally low permeability of this rock limits the availability of groundwater in this area. Saturated deposits of sand and gravel yield more than 500 gal/min to wells in the southern part of the county. Background groundwater quality and indicators of groundwater-quality problems, such as elevated concentrations of nitrate, chloride, hardness, and iron, are compared by aquifer for the entire county. An elevated concentration of iron is the major water quality problem in the county. Results of water quality analysis from observation wells drilled next to abandoned landfills throughout the county indicate that groundwater in the immediate vicinity of these landfills has been affected by leachate. The report includes maps of the thickness and saturated thickness of unconsolidated deposits, a water-table map, and tables of aquifer-production and well-production data from about 1,500 drillers ' well-construction reports. (USGS)

Circular↗
USGS2004

Trends in Streamflow Characteristics at Long-Term Gaging Stations, Hawaii

The surface-water resources of Hawaii have significant cultural, aesthetic, ecologic, and economic importance. Proper management of the surface-water resources of the State requires an understanding of the long- and short-term variability in streamflow characteristics that may occur. The U.S. Geological Survey maintains a network of stream-gaging stations in Hawaii, including a number of stations with long-term streamflow records that can be used to evaluate long-term trends and short-term variability in flow characteristics. The overall objective of this study is to obtain a better understanding of long-term trends and variations in streamflow on the islands of Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, Oahu, and Kauai, where long-term stream-gaging stations exist. This study includes (1) an analysis of long-term trends in flows (both total flow and estimated base flow) at 16 stream-gaging stations, (2) a description of patterns in trends within the State, and (3) discussion of possible regional factors (including rainfall) that are related to the observed trends and variations. Results of this study indicate the following: 1. From 1913 to 2002 base flows generally decreased in streams for which data are available, and this trend is consistent with the long-term downward trend in annual rainfall over much of the State during that period. 2. Monthly mean base flows generally were above the long-term average from 1913 to the early 1940s and below average after the early 1940s to 2002, and this pattern is consistent with the detected downward trends in base flows from 1913 to 2002. 3. Long-term downward trends in base flows of streams may indicate a reduction in ground-water discharge to streams caused by a long-term decrease in ground-water storage and recharge. 4. From 1973 to 2002, trends in streamflow were spatially variable (up in some streams and down in others) and, with a few exceptions, generally were not statistically significant. 5. Short-term variability in streamflow is related to the seasons and to the EL Ni?o-Southern Oscillation phenomenon that may be partly modulated by the phase of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation. 6. At almost all of the long-term stream-gaging stations considered in this study, average total flow (and to a lesser extent average base flow) during the winter months of January to March tended to be low following El Ni?o periods and high following La Ni?a periods, and this tendency was accentuated during positive phases of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation. 7. The El Ni?o-Southern Oscillation phenomenon occurs at a relatively short time scale (a few to several years) and appears to be more strongly related to processes controlling rainfall and direct runoff than ground-water storage and base flow. Long-term downward trends in base flows of streams may indicate a reduction in ground-water storage and recharge. Because ground water provides about 99 percent of Hawaii's domestic drinking water, a reduction in ground-water storage and recharge has serious implications for drinking-water availability. In addition, reduction in stream base flows may reduce habitat availability for native stream fauna and water availability for irrigation purposes. Further study is needed to determine (1) whether the downward trends in base flows from 1913 to 2002 will continue or whether the observed pattern is part of a long-term cycle in which base flows may eventually return to levels measured during 1913 to the early 1940s, (2) the physical causes for the detected trends and variations in streamflow, and (3) whether regional climate indicators successfully can be used to predict streamflow trends and variations throughout the State. These needs for future study underscore the importance of maintaining a network of long-term-trend stream-gaging stations in Hawaii.

Scientific Investigations Report↗
USGS2016

The Water-Quality Partnership for National Parks—U.S. Geological Survey and National Park Service, 1998–2016

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the National Park Service (NPS) work together through the USGS–NPS Water-Quality Partnership to support a broad range of policy and management needs related to high-priority water-quality issues in national parks. The program was initiated in 1998 as part of the Clean Water Action Plan, a Presidential initiative to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the Clean Water Act. Partnership projects are developed jointly by the USGS and the NPS. Studies are conducted by the USGS and findings are used by the NPS to guide policy and management actions aimed at protecting and improving water quality. The National Park Service manages many of our Nation’s most highly valued aquatic systems across the country, including portions of the Great Lakes, ocean and coastal zones, historic canals, reservoirs, large rivers, high-elevation lakes and streams, geysers, springs, and wetlands. So far, the Water-Quality Partnership has undertaken 217 projects in 119 national parks. In each project, USGS studies and assessments ( http://water.usgs.gov/nps_partnership/pubs.php ) have supported science-based management by the NPS to protect and improve water quality in parks. Some of the current projects are highlighted in the NPS Call to Action Centennial initiative, Crystal Clear, which celebrates national park water-resource efforts to ensure clean water for the next century of park management ( http://www.nature.nps.gov/water/crystalclear/ ). New projects are proposed each year by USGS scientists working in collaboration with NPS staff in specific parks. Project selection is highly competitive, with an average of only eight new projects funded each year out of approximately 75 proposals that are submitted. Since the beginning of the Partnership in 1998, 189 publications detailing project findings have been completed. The 217 studies have been conducted in 119 NPS-administered lands, extending from Denali National Park and Preserve in Alaska to Everglades National Park in Florida, and from Acadia National Park in the Northeast to park lands in Hawaii and Pacific Island territories in the West. Project goals range from periodic stream monitoring, to determining the occurrence and concentrations of contaminants and the potential for them to exceed human health or aquatic life criteria, to conducting interpretive studies to evaluate the effect(s) on or vulnerability of national park resources to visitor usage and other natural and anthropogenic activities.

Fact Sheet↗
USGS2002

Sea-cliff erosion as a function of beach changes and extreme wave runup during the 1997-1998 El Nino

Over time scales of hundreds to thousands of years, the net longshore sand transport direction along the central California coast has been driven to the south by North Pacific winter swell. In contrast, during the El Nin??o winter of 1997-1998, comparisons of before and after airborne lidar surveys showed sand was transported from south to north and accumulated on the south sides of resistant headlands bordering pocket beaches. This resulted in significant beach erosion at the south ends of pocket beaches and deposition in the north ends. Coincident with the south-to-north redistribution of sand, shoreline morphology became prominently cuspate with longshore wavelengths of 400-700 m. The width and elevation of beaches were least where maximum shoreline erosion occurred, preferentially exposing cliffs to wave attack. The resulting erosional hotspots typically were located in the embayments of giant cusps in the southern end of the pocket beaches. The observed magnitude of sea cliff retreat, which reached 14 m, varied with the number of hours that extreme wave runup exceeded certain thresholds representing the protective capacity of the beach during the El Nin??o winter. A threshold representing the width of the beach performed better than a threshold representing the elevation of the beach. The magnitude of cliff erosion can be scaled using a simple model based on the cross-shore distance that extreme wave runup exceeded the pre-winter cliff position. Cliff erosion appears to be a balance between terrestrial mass wasting processes, which tend to decrease the cliff slope, and wave attack, which removes debris and erodes the cliff base increasing the cliff slope. ?? 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Marine Geology↗
USGS2010

Implementation of the Next Generation Attenuation (NGA) ground-motion prediction equations in Fortran and R

This report presents two methods for implementing the earthquake ground-motion prediction equations released in 2008 as part of the Next Generation Attenuation of Ground Motions (NGA-West, or NGA) project coordinated by the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center (PEER). These models were developed for predicting ground-motion parameters for shallow crustal earthquakes in active tectonic regions (such as California). Of the five ground-motion prediction equations (GMPEs) developed during the NGA project, four models are implemented: the GMPEs of Abrahamson and Silva (2008), Boore and Atkinson (2008), Campbell and Bozorgnia (2008), and Chiou and Youngs (2008a); these models are abbreviated as AS08, BA08, CB08, and CY08, respectively. Since site response is widely recognized as an important influence of ground motions, engineering applications typically require that such effects be modeled. The model of Idriss (2008) is not implemented in our programs because it does not explicitly include site response, whereas the other four models include site response and use the same variable to describe the site condition (VS30). We do not intend to discourage the use of the Idriss (2008) model, but we have chosen to implement the other four NGA models in our programs for those users who require ground-motion estimates for various site conditions. We have implemented the NGA models by using two separate programming languages: Fortran and R (R Development Core Team, 2010). Fortran, a compiled programming language, has been used in the scientific community for decades. R is an object-oriented language and environment for statistical computing that is gaining popularity in the statistical and scientific community. Derived from the S language and environment developed at Bell Laboratories, R is an open-source language that is freely available at http://www.r-project.org/ (last accessed 11 January 2011). In R, the functions for computing the NGA equations can be loaded as an add-on user-contributed code, which is referred to as a ?package? in R. The details of the nga package (Kaklamanos and Thompson, 2010) are presented in this report. In addition, differences between the R and Fortran implementations will be discussed later in this report. The NGA models have established a new baseline for seismic hazard assessments, and they have been incorporated into the most recent national seismic hazard maps published by the U.S. Geological Survey (Petersen and others, 2008). However, many of the new models are significantly more complicated than previous GMPEs and, therefore, require a substantial investment of time to implement and validate. We hope that the scientific and engineering communities find our implementations to be useful in research and practice. Our implementations may be considered as an alternate to the Microsoft Excel spreadsheet implementation available on the PEER NGA project Web site (http://peer.berkeley.edu/ngawest/, last accessed 11 January 2011). The implementations in Fortran and R are more appropriate for performing batch calculations than the implementation in Microsoft Excel. Spreadsheets and Fortran code for some of the individual models also are available on the PEER NGA project Web site; our programs implement the four GMPEs simultaneously. Our programs give the same results as the programs on the PEER NGA Web site, but we offer some additional flexibility of input, additional methods of estimating unknown input parameters, and additional options for output. Although these programs have been used by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), Tufts University, and others, no warranty, expressed or implied, is made by Tufts or the USGS as to the accuracy or functioning of the programs and related material, nor shall the fact of distribution constitute any such warranty, and no responsibility is assumed by Tufts or the USGS in connection therewith.

Open-File Report↗
USGS2022

Hawaii and Landsat

Hawaii stands apart from the rest of the United States, literally and figuratively. The nearest of the eight islands that make up the Hawaiian archipelago is 2,000 miles from the U.S. mainland. Like every bit of land mass within the State, it emerged from the Pacific Ocean after thousands of years of undersea volcanic activity. Kona International Airport, on the “Big Island” of Hawai‘i, was built atop 220-year-old lava flows from the Hualālai volcano. The volcanic soils and tropical vegetation that stretch across Hawaii’s postcard-perfect peaks and valleys, as well as the trade winds that blow precipitation northeast across the islands and the warm Kona winds that move in from the south, are among the factors that make the study of the State’s landscapes distinct from the rest of the Nation. Six active volcanoes continue to alter the land surface. Some of them, like the constantly erupting Kīlauea or Mauna Loa, the world’s largest active volcano, can threaten human life and property. Man-made changes to the islands, such as the long-term agricultural production of sugar cane or pineapple, along with the introduction of non-native species, have also affected the health of the State’s ecosystems. Landsat satellites, with 50 years of repeat Earth observations and decades of data from infrared and thermal instruments capable of tracking lava flows, can offer unique opportunities for the study of Hawaii’s ever-changing landscapes. Here are a few examples of how Landsat benefits the State.

Hawaii↗
USGS2010

An initial SPARROW model of land use and in-stream controls on total organic carbon in streams of the conterminous United States

Watersheds play many important roles in the carbon cycle: (1) they are a site for both terrestrial and aquatic carbon dioxide (CO2) removal through photosynthesis; (2) they transport living and decomposing organic carbon in streams and groundwater; and (3) they store organic carbon for widely varying lengths of time as a function of many biogeochemical factors. Using the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Spatially Referenced Regression on Watershed Attributes (SPARROW) model, along with long-term monitoring data on total organic carbon (TOC), this research quantitatively estimates the sources, transport, and fate of the long-term mean annual load of TOC in streams of the conterminous United States. The model simulations use surrogate measures of the major terrestrial and aquatic sources of organic carbon to estimate the long-term mean annual load of TOC in streams. The estimated carbon sources in the model are associated with four land uses (urban, cultivated, forest, and wetlands) and autochthonous fixation of carbon (stream photosynthesis). Stream photosynthesis is determined by reach-level application of an empirical model of stream chlorophyll based on total phosphorus concentration, and a mechanistic model of photosynthetic rate based on chlorophyll, average daily solar irradiance, water column light attenuation, and reach dimensions. It was found that the estimate of in-stream photosynthesis is a major contributor to the mean annual TOC load per unit of drainage area (that is, yield) in large streams, with a median share of about 60 percent of the total mean annual carbon load in streams with mean flows above 500 cubic feet per second. The interquartile range of the model predictions of TOC from in-stream photosynthesis is from 0.1 to 0.4 grams (g) carbon (C) per square meter (m-2) per day (day-1) for the approximately 62,000 stream reaches in the continental United States, which compares favorably with the reported literature range for net carbon fixation by phytoplankton in lakes and streams. The largest contributors per unit of drainage area to the mean annual stream TOC load among the terrestrial sources are, in descending order: wetlands, urban lands, mixed forests, agricultural lands, evergreen forests, and deciduous forests . It was found that the SPARROW model estimates of TOC contributions to streams associated with these land uses are also consistent with literature estimates. SPARROW model calibration results are used to simulate the delivery of TOC loads to the coastal areas of seven major regional drainages. It was found that stream photosynthesis is the largest source of the TOC yields ( about 50 percent) delivered to the coastal waters in two of the seven regional drainages (the Pacific Northwest and Mississippi-Atchafalaya-Red River basins ), whereas terrestrial sources are dominant (greater than 60 percent) in all other regions (North Atlantic, South Atlantic-Gulf, California, Texas-Gulf, and Great Lakes).

Conterminous United States↗
USGS2013

Seventy-five years of science—The U.S. Geological Survey’s Western Fisheries Research Center

As of January 2010, 75 years have elapsed since Dr. Frederic Fish initiated the pioneering research program that would evolve into today’s Western Fisheries Research Center (WFRC). Fish began his research working alone in the basement of the recently opened Fisheries Biological Laboratory on Lake Union in Seattle, Washington. WFRC’s research began under the aegis of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and ends its first 75 years as part of the U.S. Geological Survey with a staff of more than 150 biologists and support personnel and a heritage of fundamental research that has made important contributions to our understanding of the biology and ecology of the economically important fish and fish populations of the Nation. Although the current staff may rarely stop to think about it, WFRC’s antecedents extend many years into the past and are intimately involved with the history of fisheries conservation in the Western United States. Thus, WFRC Director Lyman Thorsteinson asked me to write the story of this laboratory “while there are still a few of you around who were here for some of the earlier years” to document the rich history and culture of WFRC by recognizing its many famous scientists and their achievements. This historyalso would help document WFRC’s research ‘footprint’ in the Western United States and its strategic directions. Center Director Thorsteinson concluded that WFRC’s heritage told by an emeritus scientist also would add a texture of legitimacy based on personal knowledge that will all-to-soon be lost to the WFRC and to the USGS. The WFRC story is important for the future as well as for historical reasons. It describes how we got to the place we are today by documenting the origin, original mission, and our evolving role in response to the constantly changing technical information requirements of new environmental legislation and organizational decision-making. The WFRC research program owes its existence to the policy requirements of Federal conservation legislation originating with the construction of Grand Coulee Dam in 1933. The research program was shaped by laws enacted in subsequent years such as the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972), National Environmental Policy Act (1973), Endangered Species Act (1974), and Northwest Power Planning Act (1980), to name only a few. The WFRC has not been constrained by direct management or regulatory responsibility for a particular fishery (such as providing sustainable catch limits data to a resource management structure). Thus, WFRC has been able to concentrate on scientific pursuits and information needs required by contemporary environmental legislation. Over the years, we have pioneered in several important areas of fisheries research including the diagnoses and control of diseases in economically important fish, effects of environmental alterations on the physiological quality and survival of Pacific salmon released from federal mitigation hatcheries, applications in biotelemetry, and the bioenergetics of predator-prey interactions in the Columbia River. The WFRC of today is a widely distributed organization in the Western United States. Knowledge of the historical connections and accomplishments of our predecessors is important beyond the sense of pride and unity it instills in the WFRC family of today. For example, a discerning reader will note the evolution of WFRC’s research from a single disciplinary focus (early era—hatchery disease problems), to multiple disciplines (middle to late era—species, populations, habitats; threatened and endangered species), to the present era (multidisciplinary and with increasing process focus). For the benefit of the current WFRC staff, more emphasis has been placed on the early years rather than on the present day because people are quite naturally more familiar with the recent past than with the research done during the first decades of WFRC’s existence. By every rational measure, the WFRC has evolved into a fisheries research organization well positioned to provide the biological information needed to support the continued conservation and management of our Nation’s living aquatic natural resources. The high standard of excellence that connects WFRC’s past to our present research program provides a firm foundation on which to base the work yet to be done. In another 75 years, WFRC will undoubtedly be a very different place than it is today, but its evolution will be forever rooted in the story of the research and of the people related here. More about the diverse fisheries research projects WFRC scientists are conducting today is available at WFRC’s website: http://wfrc.usgs.gov/.

Washington↗
USGS2021

Kelp forest monitoring at Naval Base Ventura County, San Nicolas Island, California—Fall 2019, sixth annual repor

The U.S. Geological Survey conducts ecological monitoring of rocky subtidal communities at four permanent sites around San Nicolas Island. The sites—Nav Fac 100, West End, Dutch Harbor, and Daytona 100—were based on ones that had been monitored since 1980 by the U.S. Geological Survey and, in cooperation with the U.S. Navy, were combined or expanded in 2014 for better comparability with monitoring programs conducted at the other California Channel Islands. At the sites, we counted a suite of kelps and invertebrates on benthic band transects, measured bottom cover of algae and sessile invertebrate species in quadrats, and counted and sized fish on swimming transects. Holdfast diameter and number of stipes of giant kelp ( Macrocystis pyrifera ) were recorded on these transects and size data were collected for urchins, sea stars, and shelled mollusks. Bottom temperatures were recorded at hourly intervals by archival data loggers that were deployed at the sites. Typically, this monitoring work is conducted semi-annually, in fall and spring. Because the spring 2020 trip was cancelled due to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 pandemic, this report focuses primarily on data collected in fall 2019 and makes comparisons with data collected in previous years, beginning in fall 2014. The sites are distributed around the island and differ in their physical and ecological characteristics. Nav Fac 100, situated on the north side of San Nicolas Island, has a relatively low benthic profile. The invasive brown alga Sargassum horneri was first observed at this site in 2015. West End, to the southwest of the island, also lacks much bottom relief but has more crevice habitat associated with boulders. For almost three decades, West End has been a focal point for the small, but growing, population of southern sea otters ( Enhydra lutris nereis ) at the island. Dutch Harbor, on the south side, has many high relief rocky reefs and had the greatest fish and non-motile invertebrate densities. Daytona 100, on the southeast side, has moderate relief and has remained a patchwork of kelp and sea urchin dominated areas. There were no major changes at the sites since spring 2019, but some trends observed during the last few years continued whereas others changed. Red urchins continued a declining trend (observed during the last 4 years) at Daytona 100. The wavy turban snail ( Megastraea undosa ) began to increase rapidly at Nav Fav 100 in 2015 and has subsequently been increasing at the other sites as well, after more than a decade of very low numbers at all sites. Sea star wasting syndrome, which has devastated multiple species of sea stars along the Pacific coast of North America, affected most species at San Nicolas Island in the year prior to the fall 2014 sampling. Since then, there has been a reduction in the number of bat stars ( Patiria miniata ), and very few sea stars of other species have been observed. There has been a slight recovery of P. miniata since 2016 but little sign of change in other species. All the sites had a slight decline in the densities of purple urchins following an increase during the previous 2 years. Long-term data are presented to illustrate trends and changes during almost four decades of monitoring this dynamic system.

Naval Base Ventura County, San Nicolas Island↗
USGS1976

Geology of central Costa Rica and its implications in the geologic history of the region

The oldest rocks in Costa Rica, the Nicoya Complex, crop out in an arcuate belt along the Pacific coast and outside the mapped area. The complex is an ophiolite assemblage and indicates that a Late Cretaceous arc-trench system, probably a southerly extension of the Middle America Trench, lay along and west of the present Pacific coast. Polarity of the system is indicated by the presence of a volcanic olivine basalt arc east of the ophiolite belt and by a younger magmatic arc farther east. Relative lack of metamorphism of the ophiolite assemblage suggests that the rocks were obducted rather than subducted. Fossil evidence indicates that the complex was emplaced no later than the late Campanian. By the late Eocene both the ophiolite assemblage and the olivine basalt arc had been established as major sediment sources for basins that lay to the east, and they continued as such through the Oligocene and possibly into the middle Miocene. Widespread deposition of trachyandesite lava and volcaniclastic sediments, local marine planation, uplift, and renewed volcanism mark what is presumed to be the end of the Miocene. Extreme south-to-north coarsening of the unconformably superposed Doan Formation and the presence of corals in the shaly facies of the Doan in the southern part of the mapped areas suggest that marine sedimentation there was undisturbed by orogeny and that intrusion of the Talamancan magmatic rocks must have followed deposition of the Doan. Volcaniclastic block breccia, characteristic of northern exposures of the Doan, indicates that volcanism in the proto- Cordillera Central had begun by at least Doan time. Volcanism has been a dominant process in central Costa Rica since that time.

Journal of Research of the U.S. Geological Survey↗
USGS2018

Changes in aquatic prey resources in response to estuary restoration in Willapa Bay, southwestern Washington

Executive Summary The ongoing restoration of more than 200 hectares of estuarine habitat at Willapa National Wildlife Refuge, southwestern Washington, is expected to benefit a variety of species, including salmonids that use estuarine and tidal marshes as rearing and feeding areas as well as migratory waterbirds. During March–June 2014 and 2015, U.S. Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center (WERC) initiated a study to assess aquatic prey resources, in coordination with a separate but parallel fish study done by the Columbia River Estuary Study Taskforce. WERC collected data on environmental variables and invertebrate community structure, and the taskforce provided salmonid diet data at restored (Lewis Stream and Porter Point) and reference (Greenhead Slough and Ellsworth Creek) sites. We analyzed these data to determine the functional capacity of the estuary for supporting invertebrate prey resources for fish following restoration. The results of our analyses were as follows: Water temperatures were roughly 0.74 degrees Celsius warmer in 2015 than in 2014 at all sites, with potential consequences for salmonid bioenergetics in June and July. Mudflat was colonized by low marsh species such as pickleweed from 2014 to 2015 at restored Lewis Stream. Vegetation community structure remained stable at Greenhead Slough, Ellsworth Creek, and Porter Point in both years, and consisted of halophilic sedges (for example, Carex lyngbyei ) and saltgrass ( Distichlis spicata ). Benthic invertebrate community structure consisted of Polychaeta, Nematoda, Oligochaeta, Amphipoda, and Diptera larvae, all of which contribute to the foraging capacity of juvenile salmon and migratory shorebirds. Benthic invertebrate biomass increased as much as 30-fold at some sites from 2014 to 2015. Terrestrial invertebrate community structure was dominated by Dipteran flies, especially at restored Lewis Stream, which primarily was unvegetated in 2014. Other key taxa included Hemiptera, Arachnida, and Collembola. Aquatic invertebrate prey consisted of planktonic taxa and terrestrial invertebrate drift that fell into the water column from overhanging vegetation. The restored Porter Point had markedly fewer Copepoda, but had the highest levels of neuston biomass primarily due to Dipteran drift (terrestrial flies that fell into the water column). Average proportion similarity index (PSI) values between salmon diet and invertebrate prey availability were relatively low at all sites (<0.1), but were highest at the restored Lewis Stream (0.105±0.102). This likely was influenced by the predominance of Diptera in the surrounding habitat and in the diets of juvenile Chinook and chum salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha and O. keta , respectively). The invasive New Zealand mud snail ( Potamopyrgus antipodarum ) was detected at both Lewis Stream (8 out of 34 aquatic and benthic samples) and Porter Point (1 out of 32 aquatic and benthic samples) restoration sites, but not at reference sites Greenhead Slough or Ellsworth Creek. This invasive species has been observed throughout the Pacific Northwest coastline is not palatable to most fish (including salmonids) and may even be detrimental to some fish species. Although invertebrate communities differed between restored and reference sites, invertebrate biomass at the restored Lewis Stream and Porter Point was like or exceeded that of reference sites Greenhead Slough and Ellsworth Creek. The restored sites are still in the early phases of restoration and succession, but our study suggests they have the capacity to support foraging wildlife species such as salmonids.

Washington↗
USGS1982

Design concepts for a Global Telemetered Seismograph Network

This study represents a first step in developing an integrated, real-time global seismic data acquisition system a Global Telemetered Seismograph Network (GTSN). The principal objective of the GTSN will be to acquire reliable, high-quality, real-time seismic data for rapid location and analysis of seismic events. A secondary, but important, objective of the GTSN is to augment the existing off-line seismic data base available for research. The deployment of the GTSN will involve a variety of interrelated activities development of the data acquisition and receiving equipment, establishment of satellite and terrestrial communication links, site selection and preparation, training of station personnel, equipment installation, and establishment of support facilities. It is a complex program and the development of a sound management plan will be essential. The purpose of this study is not to fix design goals or dictate avenues of approach but to develop working concepts that may be used as a framework for program planning. The international exchange of seismic data has been an important factor in the progress that has been made during the past two decades in our understanding of earthquakes and global tectonics. The seismic data base available for analysis and research is derived principally from the Global Seismograph Network (GSN), which is funded and managed by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The GSN comprises some 120 seismograph stations located in more than 60 countries of the world. Established during the 1960 s with the installation of the World-Wide Standardized Seismograph Network (WWSSN) , the GSN has been augmented in recent years by the installation of more advanced data systems, such as the Seismic Research Observatories (SRO), the modified High-Gain LongPeriod (ASRO) seismographs, and the digital WWSSN (DWWSSN). The SRO, ASRO, and DWWSSN stations have the common, distinctive feature of digital data recording, so they are known collectively as the Global Digital Seismograph Network (GDSN). The fundamental objective in operating the GSN is to create and update a seismic data base that is accessible without restrictions to organizations and research scientists throughout the world. The USGS provides cooperating stations with instrumentation, training, and continuing support, including supplies and on-site maintenance. In return, the host organization operates the equipment and sends the recorded data to the USGS. Analog data (seismograms) are microfilmed and about four million copies are requested annually by researchers. Digital data, which are recorded on magnetic tape, are organized by the USGS Albuquerque Seismological Laboratory (ASL) into networkday tapes and copies of the day tapes are furnished to data users through national and regional data centers. After copying, original data are returned to the stations and used for local research. Most of the stations in the GSN also provide the USGS with seismic readings « phase arrival times and amplitudes scaled from the seismograms. These readings are transmitted on a daily or biweekly basis via commercial or diplomatic communication channels. They are used by the USGS National Earthquake Information Service (NEIS) to determine the location and magnitude of earthquakes occurring throughout the world. The results are published monthly in bulletins that are distributed to the participating stations and virtually all scientific organizations that are involved in seismological studies. It is a much-valued service that provides a current, updated catalog of seismic activity on a global scale. The NEIS also has the responsibility for rapid reporting of large and potentially destructive earthquakes. The NEIS issues news bulletins as soon as possible after the occurrence of magnitude 6.5 or greater earthquakes (magnitude 5 or greater in the conterminous United States). The news bulletins are sent to disaster relief, public safety, and other interested organizations. Tsunami warnings issued to countries bordering the Pacific Ocean are based initially on earthquake location and magnitude data. Rapid reporting of earthquakes requires real-time waveform data or readings. Currently, signals are being telemetered from more than thirty stations in the United States to the NEIS, which is located in Golden, Colorado. An extension of the telemetry network to other countries will provide the seismological community with a significantly improved means of monitoring earthquake activity in real time; it will lower the response time for determining the location and magnitude of potentially destructive or tsunamigenic earthquakes and it will provide more timely information that may be needed by governments to respond promptly.

Open-File Report↗
USGS2011

Groundwater conditions in the Brunswick-Glynn County area, Georgia, 2009

The Upper Floridan aquifer is contaminated with saltwater in a 2-square-mile area of downtown Brunswick, Georgia. The presence of this saltwater has limited the development of the groundwater supply in the Glynn County area. Hydrologic, geologic, and water-quality data are needed to effectively manage water resources. Since 1959, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has conducted a cooperative water program with the City of Brunswick and Glynn County to monitor and assess the effect of groundwater development on saltwater intrusion within the Floridan aquifer system. The potential development of alternative sources of water in the Brunswick and surficial aquifer systems also is an important consideration in coastal areas. During calendar year 2009, the cooperative water program included continuous water-level recording of 13 wells completed in the Floridan, Brunswick, and surficial aquifer systems; collecting water levels from 46 wells to map the potentiometric surface of the Upper Floridan aquifer in Glynn County during August 2009; and collecting and analyzing water samples from 55 wells completed in the Floridan aquifer system, of which 27 wells were used to map chloride concentrations in the upper water-bearing zone of the Upper Floridan aquifer in the Brunswick area during August 2009. Periodic water-level measurements also were collected from two wells completed in the Upper Floridan aquifer and four wells completed in the Brunswick aquifer system on Jekyll Island. Equipment was installed on one well to enable real-time specific conductance monitoring in the area surrounding the chloride plume. During 2008-2009, water levels in 30 of the 32 wells monitored in the Brunswick-Glynn County area rose at a rate of 0.24 to 7.58 feet per year (ft/yr). The largest rise of 7.58 ft/yr was in the Upper Floridan aquifer. These rises corresponded to a period of above normal precipitation and decreased pumping. Declines during 2008-2009 were recorded in wells completed in the Brunswick aquifer system (0.37 ft/yr) and Lower Floridan aquifer (0.83 ft/yr). Chloride data collected by two local industrial groundwater users at their well fields since 1958 were compiled and compared with data collected by the USGS during the same period. The results indicate that chloride concentrations at the two well fields have continued to rise despite modification of production wells to eliminate deep saline zones and decreases in pumpage at both facilities. One of the industrial users, Pinova Inc., plugged the lower portions of nine production wells in the mid to late 1960s, which generally decreased chloride concentrations to less than 100 milligrams per liter (mg/L) for a period of 10 to 20 years. However, chloride concentrations eventually returned to previous levels despite decreases in pumpage. During 1990-2009, chloride concentrations at the other industrial user's well field (Georgia-Pacific Cellulose LLC) generally increased despite a 16 million gallon per day decrease in pumpage during this period. Data from the Georgia-Pacific Cellulose well field and additional chloride data from USGS observation wells located to the east indicate continued movement of chloride from the source area located southeast of the site toward the well field.

Georgia↗