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USGS1982

Methodology for hydrologic evaluation of a potential surface mine: Loblolly Branch basin, Tuscaloosa County, Alabama

Methodology for evaluating premining hydrology and postmining effects of mining and reclamation on the hydrology of an area is presented for a potential mine-permit area of 1,680 acres in the Warrior Coal Field, northwestern Alabama. Information is included on climate, geology, soil-water relations, vegetation, surface water, ground water, and quality of water. Estimation techniques are used to develop data for reconstructed topography, soil-water relations, vegetation cover, peak flows, flow volumes, soil losses, and sediment yields. Streamflow response of the basin is described by the variable-source-area concept; nearly all water moving from slopes flows through coarse-textured soils and unconsolidated sand and gravel deposits that are underlain by an impermeable clay zone. The resultant peak discharges per unit area are small to moderate, and there is very little erosion of slopes or channels. Susceptibility of the soils to compaction by heavy machines and the effects of compaction on soil-water relations are demonstrated. Regression and empirical methods for evaluating streamflow characteristics are compared. Estimates of peak discharges made with four methods are divergent, particularly for recurrence intervals of 2, 5, and 10 years; divergence is less for 25-, 50-, and 100-year discharges. The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and sediment-delivery ratios are used to estimate sediment yields for various land and cover conditions from premining until 20 years after reclamation would begin. A premining estimate of sediment yield made with the Universal Soil Loss Equation and a sediment-delivery ratio is about 2.5 times larger than an estimate made with the sediment rating curve-flow duration method. Research and data needs are discussed regarding: (1) An improved understanding of the hydrology of small, very ,permeable, upland basins; (2) alternative methods for estimating streamflow and sediment yield of such basins; (3) field evaluation of permeability and erodibility of soils on reclaimed areas; and (4) better understanding of ground-water hydrology and geochemistry of the coal-bearing Pottsville Formation before and after mining.

Alabama↗

USGS1982

Design of surface-water data networks for regional information

This report describes a technique, Network Analysis of Regional Information (NARI), and the existing computer procedures that have been developed for the specification of the regional information-cost relation for several statistical parameters of streamflow. The measure of information used is the true standard error of estimate of a regional logarithmic regression. The cost is a function of the number of stations at which hydrologic data are collected and the number of years for which the data are collected. The technique can be used to obtain either (1) a minimum cost network that will attain a prespecified accuracy and reliability or (2) a network that maximizes information given a set of budgetary and time constraints.

Water Supply Paper↗

USGS1984

Discharge ratings at gaging stations

A discharge rating is the relation of the discharge at a gaging station to stage and sometimes also to other variables. This chapter of 'Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations' describes the procedures commonly used to develop simple ratings where discharge is related only to stage and the most frequently encountered types of complex ratings where additional factors such as rate of change in stage, water-surface slope, or index velocity are used. Fundamental techniques of logarithmic plotting and the applications of simple storage routing to rating development are demonstrated. Computer applications, especially for handheld programmable calculators, and data handling are stressed.

Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations↗

USGS1982

Liming of acidified waters: issues and research - a report of the International Liming Workshop

Acidic deposition is a problem of significant national and international concern. It is strongly suspected that acidic deposition has adversely affected aquatic resources in Scandinavia and North America. While substantial resources are being devoted to understanding the causative factors associated with surface water acidification, much less research is being conducted on mitigative strategies. Mitigative techniques involving liming may be useful for short-term protection of specific component of aquatic communities or for renovation of seriously impacted aquatic ecosystems. The selection of effective liming strategies is based on an integrated understanding of the following key factors: biological systems, water chemistry, sediment chemistry, hydrology, and watershed characteristics, effectiveness of neutralizing materials, and application techniques. Research in Scandinavia, Canada, and the U.S. has led to a partial understanding of some of the key factors for successful neutralization of surface waters (Bengtsson, 1982; Fraser and Britt, 1982). However, conflicting results of liming operations and experiments have been reported. (Fraser et al., 1982; Fraser and Britt, 1982; Sverdrup and Bjerle, 1982). Additional research is required to improve the ability of scientists and resource managers to select effective liming strategies. An International Liming workshop was convened during 19-25 September 1982 at the University of Washington's Friday Harbor Laboratories. The major objective of this workshop were: - To identify the most critical deficiencies in the scientific understanding of liming techniques and their long-term consequences. - To develop and document a research strategy to address information deficiencies that are pertinent to the protection or renovation of acidic surface waters in the United States. The participants who contributed to this workshop are listed in Table 1.

FWS/OBS↗

USGS1996

Water-quality assessment of the Connecticut, Housatonic, and Thames River Basins study unit: Analysis of available data on nutrients, suspended sediments, and pesticides, 1972-92

This retrospective report examines available nutrient, suspended sediment, and pesticide data in surface and ground water in the Connecticut, Housatonic and Thames Rivers Study Unit of the National Water-Quality Assessment Program. The purpose of this study is to improve the understanding of natural and anthropogenic factors affecting water quality in the study unit. Waterquality data were acquired from various sources, primarily, the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The report examines data for water years 1972-92, focusing on 1980-92, although it also includes additional data from as early as 1905. The study unit lies within the New England Physiographic Province and altitudes range from sea level in coastal Connecticut to 6,288 feet above sea level at Mount Washington, New Hampshire. Two major aquifer types underlie the study unit unconsolidated glacial deposits and fractured bedrock. The climate generally is temperate and humid, with four distinct seasons. Average annual precipitation ranges from 34 to 65 inches. The study unit has a population of about 4.5 million, which is most highly concentrated in southwestern Connecticut and along the south-central region of the Connecticut River Valley. Surface-water-quality data were screened to provide information about sites with adequate numbers of analyses (50) over sufficiently long periods (1980-90) to enable valid statistical analyses. In order to compare effects of different types of land use on surface-water quality, examination of data required application of several statistical and graphical techniques, including mapping, histograms, boxplots, concentration-discharge plots, trend analysis, and load estimation. Spatial and temporal analysis of surface-water-quality data indicated that, with a single exception, only stations in the Connecticut water-quality network had sufficient data collected over adequately long time periods to use in detailed analyses. Ground-water nutrient and pesticide data were compiled from several Federal and State agencies, primarily the U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and Connecticut Department of Health Services. Nutrient data were available for several thousand wells; nitrite plus nitrate as nitrogen was the most commonly reported constituent. Most wells with nutrient data are in Massachusetts and Connecticut. Relative to nutrient data in ground and surface water, pesticide data are less common. Pesticide data were available for slightly more than 200 surface-water sites and less than 500 wells; about 95 percent of the wells are completed in stratified-drift or till aquifers. Data for 81 pesticide compounds were available in various data bases. 2,4-D and silvex were the most commonly detected herbicides in surface water and dieldrin and diazinon were the most commonly detected insecticides. Most surface-water pesticide samples and detections are from bed sediment, but much of the data are not recent. Ethylene dibromide (EDB), a soil fumigant used in tobacco farming was detected in 268 wells in a 50 square-mile area of north-central Connecticut; EDB contamination also was detected in wells in Massachusetts. Atrazine, an herbicide commonly used in corn farming, commonly was detected in wells installed in tilled agricultural fields. Corn herbicides were commonly detected in the northern part of the study unit, although the sampling has been less frequent than in the southern part of the study unit. Pesticides were seldom detected in public-supply wells in Connecticut. Urban sites with relatively high population densities and high concentrations of dischargers were characterized by having the highest nutrient concentrations and loads when adjusted for differences in drainage area or population. Particularly, the Pequabuck, Naugatuck, and Quinnipiac River Basins were characterized by high nutrient concentrations median total nitrogen concentrations ranged from 3.3 to 4.2 mg/L (milligrams per liter) and median total phosphorus concentrations ranged from 0.42 to 0.8 mg/L. In contrast, the predominantly forested and low density residential land-use sites, such as Saugatuck and Salmon River Basins, were characterized by low nutrient concentrations median total nitrogen ranged from 0.50 to 0.60 mg/L and median total phosphorus concentrations ranged from 0.01 to 0.02 mg/L. Estimated total nitrogen loadings in median discharge years ranged from 940 kilograms per square mile at the Salmon River near East Hampton, Conn., to 5,800 kilograms per square mile at the Naugatuck River at Beacon Falls, Conn. Water quality, in terms of nutrient concentrations and areally adjusted loadings, for sites with large drainage basins integrating a wide variety of land-use categories fell between the extremes of the urban and forested sites total nitrogen was 1,400 kilograms per square mile per year at the Connecticut River at Thompsonville, Conn. Nitrate concentrations in ground water occasionally exceeded the safe drinking-water standard of 10 mg/L as nitrogen. The greatest number of detections exceeding the standard, however, were not in public-water supplies but in shallow observation wells in agricultural settings (the most frequently sampled type of well). None of the public-supply wells in Massachusetts exceeded the standard. Although nitrate concentrations for Vermont and New Hampshire generally were low, few data were available and those were seldom reported on the basis of drainage basin, making analysis difficult. Trend analysis indicated that flow-adjusted concentrations of total and dissolved phosphorus generally decreased during the period of analysis, however, total nitrogen did not change substantially. Decreases in ammonia concentrations with time were usually accompanied by increases in nitrate, suggesting improvements in sewage treatment. The lack of adequate data from more or less exclusively agricultural areas points to the need for further study of the effects of fanning on surface-water quality in the study unit. Furthermore, additional information is needed on the rates, transformations, and movements of nutrients and other materials through and between the aquatic and terrestrial components of the study unit.

Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Quebec,↗

USGS2008

Modeling landscape evapotranspiration by integrating land surface phenology and a water balance algorithm

The main objective of this study is to present an improved modeling technique called Vegetation ET (VegET) that integrates commonly used water balance algorithms with remotely sensed Land Surface Phenology (LSP) parameter to conduct operational vegetation water balance modeling of rainfed systems at the LSP’s spatial scale using readily available global data sets. Evaluation of the VegET model was conducted using Flux Tower data and two-year simulation for the conterminous US. The VegET model is capable of estimating actual evapotranspiration (ETa) of rainfed crops and other vegetation types at the spatial resolution of the LSP on a daily basis, replacing the need to estimate crop- and region-specific crop coefficients.

Algorithms↗

USGS2003

Possible Extent and Depth of Salt Contamination in Ground Water Using Geophysical Techniques, Red River Aluminum Site, Stamps, Arkansas, April 2003

A surface-geophysical investigation of the Red River Aluminum site at Stamps, Arkansas, was conducted in cooperation with the Arkansas Department of Environmental Quality to determine the possible extent and depth of saltwater contamination. Water-level measurements indicate the distance to water level below land surface ranges from about 1.2 to 3.9 feet (0.37 to 1.19 meters) in shallow monitor wells and about 10.5 to 17.1 feet (3.20 to 5.21 meters) in deeper monitoring wells. The two-dimensional, direct-current resistivity method identified resistivities less than 5 ohm-meters which indicated possible areas of salt contamination occurring in near-surface or deep subsurface ground water along four resistivity lines within the site. One line located east of the site yielded data that demonstrated no effect of salt contamination. Sections from two of the five data sets were modeled. The input model grids were created on the basis of the known geology and the results and interpretations of borehole geophysical data. The clay-rich Cook Mountain Formation is modeled as 25 ohm-meters and extends from 21 meters (68.9 feet) below land surface to the bottom of the model (about 52 meters (170.6 feet)). The models were used to refine interpretation of the resistivity data and to determine extent of saltwater contamination and depth to the Cook Mountain Formation. Data from the resistivity lines indicate both near-surface and subsurface saltwater contamination. The near-surface contamination appears as low resistivity (less than 5 ohm-meters) on four of the five resistivity lines, extending up to 775 meters (2,542.8 feet) horizontally in a line that traverses the entire site south to north. Model resistivity data indicate that the total depth of saltwater contamination is about 18 meters (59 feet) below land surface. Data from four resistivity lines identified areas containing low resistivity anomalies interpreted as possible salt contamination. A fifth line located just east of the site showed no saltwater contamination.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS1996

Trends in the chemistry of precipitation and surface water in a national network of small watersheds

Trends in precipitation and surface water chemistry at a network of 15 small watersheds ( < 10 km2) in the USA were evaluated using a statistical test for monotonic trends (the seasonal Kendall test) and a graphical smoothing technique for the visual identification of trends. Composite precipitation samples were collected weekly and surface water samples were collected at least monthly. Concentrations were adjusted before trend analysis, by volume for precipitation samples and by flow for surface water samples. A relation between precipitation and surface water trends was not evident either for individual inorganic solutes or for solute combinations, such as ionic strength, at most sites. The only exception was chloride, for which there was a similar trend at 60% of the sites. The smoothing technique indicated that short-term patterns in precipitation chemistry were not reflected in surface waters. The magnitude of the short-term variations in surface water concentration was generally larger than the overall long-term trend, possibly because flow adjustment did not adequately correct for climatic variability. Detecting the relation between precipitation and surface water chemistry trends may be improved by using a more powerful sampling strategy and by developing better methods of concentration adjustment to remove the effects of natural variation in surface waters.

Hydrological Processes↗

USGS2012

Water-quality characteristics and trend analyses for the Tongue, Powder, Cheyenne, and Belle Fourche River drainage basins, Wyoming and Montana, for selected periods, water years 1991 through 2010

The Powder River structural basin in northeastern Wyoming and southeastern Montana is an area of ongoing coalbed natural gas (CBNG) development. Waters produced during CBNG development are managed with a variety of techniques, including surface impoundments and discharges into stream drainages. The interaction of CBNG-produced waters with the atmosphere and the semiarid soils of the Powder River structural basin can affect water chemistry in several ways. Specific conductance and sodium adsorption ratios (SAR) of CBNG-produced waters that are discharged to streams have been of particular concern because they have the potential to affect the use of the water for irrigation. Water-quality monitoring has been conducted since 2001 at main-stem and tributary sites in the Tongue, Powder, Cheyenne, and Belle Fourche River drainage basins in response to concerns about CBNG effects. A study was conducted to summarize characteristics of stream-water quality for water years 2001–10 (October 1, 2000, to September 30, 2010) and examine trends in specific conductance, SAR, and primary constituents that contribute to specific conductance and SAR for changes through time (water years 1991–2010) that may have occurred as a result of CBNG development. Specific conductance and SAR are the focus characteristics of this report. Dissolved calcium, magnesium, and sodium, which are primary contributors to specific conductance and SAR, as well as dissolved alkalinity, chloride, and sulfate, which are other primary contributors to specific conductance, also are described. Stream-water quality in the Tongue, Powder, Cheyenne, and Belle Fourche River drainage basins was variable during water years 2001–10, in part because of variations in streamflow. In general, annual runoff was less than average during water years 2001–06 and near or above average during water years 2007–10. Stream water of the Tongue River had the smallest specific conductance values, sodium adsorption ratios, and major ion concentrations of the main-stem streams. Sites in the Tongue River drainage basin typically had the smallest range of specific conductance and SAR values. The water chemistry of sites in the Powder River drainage basin generally was the most variable as a result of diverse characteristics of that basin. Plains tributaries in the Powder River drainage basin had the largest range of specific conductance and SAR values, in part due to the many tributaries that receive CBNG-produced waters. Trends were analyzed using the seasonal Kendall test with flow-adjusted concentrations to determine changes to water quality through time at sites in the Tongue, Powder, Cheyenne, and Belle Fourche River drainage basins. Trends were evaluated for water years 2001–10 for 17 sites, which generally were on the main-stem streams and primary tributaries. Trends were evaluated for water years 2005–10 for 26 sites to increase the spatial coverage of sites. Trends were evaluated for water years 1991–2010 for eight sites to include water-quality data collected prior to widespread CBNG development and expand the temporal context of trends. Consistent patterns were not observed in trend results for water years 2001–10 for flow-adjusted specific conductance and SAR values in the Tongue, Powder, and Belle Fourche River drainage basins. Significant (p-values less than 0.05) upward trends in flow-adjusted specific conductance values were determined for 3 sites, a downward trend was determined for 1 site, and no significant (p-value greater than 0.05) trends were determined for 13 sites. One of the sites with a significant upward trend was the Tongue River at the Wyoming-Montana State line. No trend in flow-adjusted specific conductance values was determined for the Powder River at Moorhead, Mont. Significant upward trends in flow-adjusted SAR values were determined for 2 sites and no significant trends were determined for 15 sites. No trends in flow-adjusted SAR values were determined for the Tongue River at the Wyoming-Montana State line or for the Powder River at Moorhead, Mont. One of the sites with a significant upward trend in flow-adjusted SAR values was the Powder River at Arvada, Wyo. For water years 2005–10, significant upward trends in flow-adjusted specific conductance values were determined no significant trends were determined for 13 sites. A significant upward trend was determined for flow-adjusted specific conductance values for the Tongue River at the Wyoming-Montana State line. No trend in flow-adjusted specific conductance values was determined for the Powder River at Moorhead, Mont. Significant upward trends in flow-adjusted SAR values were determined for 4 sites, downward trends were determined for 5 sites, and no significant trend was determined for 17 sites. No trends in flow-adjusted SAR values were determined for the Tongue River at the Wyoming-Montana State line or for the Powder River at Moorhead, Mont. Results of the seasonal Kendall test applied to flow-adjusted specific conductance values for water years 1991–2010 indicated no significant trend for eight sites in the Tongue, Powder, and Belle Fourche River drainage basins. No significant trend in flow-adjusted specific conductance was determined for the Tongue River at the Wyoming-Montana State line or the Powder River at Moorhead, Mont. Results of the seasonal Kendall test applied to flow-adjusted SAR values for water years 1991–2010 indicated an upward trend for one site and no significant trend for four sites in the Powder and Belle Fourche River drainage basins. The significant upward trend in flow-adjusted SAR values was determined for the Powder River at Arvada, Wyo., for water years 1991–2010. Results indicate that CBNG development in the Powder River structural basin may have contributed to some trends, such as the upward trend in flow-adjusted SAR for the Powder River at Arvada, Wyo., for water years 1991–2010. An upward trend in flow-adjusted alkalinity concentrations for water years 2001–10 also was determined for the Powder River at Arvada, Wyo. Trend results are consistent with changes that can occur from the addition of sodium and bicarbonate associated with CBNG-produced waters to the Powder River. Upward trends in constituents at other sites, including the Belle Fourche River, may be the result of declining CBNG development, indicating that CBNG-produced waters may have had a dilution effect on some streams. The factors affecting other trends could not be determined because multiple factors could have been affecting the stream-water quality or because trends were observed at sites upstream from CBNG development that may have affected water-quality trends at sites downstream.

Wyoming;Montana↗

USGS1998

Quality-Assurance/Quality-Control Manual for Collection and Analysis of Water-Quality Data in the Ohio District, US Geological Survey

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), Water Resources Division (WRD), requires that quality-assurance/quality-control (QA/QC) activities be included in any sampling and analysis program. Operational QA/QC procedures address local needs while incorporating national policies. Therefore, specific technical policies were established for all activities associated with water-quality project being done by the Ohio District. The policies described in this report provide Ohio District personnel, cooperating agencies, and others with a reference manual on QA/QC procedures that are followed in collecitng and analyzing water-quality samples and reporting water-quality information in the Ohio District. The project chief, project support staff, District Water-Quality Specialist, and District Laboratory Coordinator are all involved in planning and implementing QA/QC activities at the district level. The District Chief and other district-level managers provide oversight, and the Regional Water-Quality Specialist, Office of Water Quality (USGS headquarters), and the Branch of Quality Systems within the Office of Water Quality create national QA/QC polices and provide assistance to District personnel. In the literature, the quality of all measurement data is expressed in terms of precision, variability, bias, accuracy, completeness, representativeness, and comparability. In the Ohio District, bias and variability will be used to describe quality-control data generated from samples in the field and laboratory. Each project chief must plan for implementation and financing of QA/QC activities necessary to achieve data-quality objectives. At least 15 percent of the total project effort must be directed toward QA/QC activities. Of this total, 5-10 percent will be used for collection and analysis of quality-control samples. This is an absolute minimum, and more may be required based on project objectives. Proper techniques must be followed in the collection and processing of surface-water, ground-water, biological, precipitation, bed-sediment, bedload, suspended-sediment, and solid-phase samples. These techniques are briefly described in this report and are extensively documented. The reference documents listed in this report will be kept by the District librarian and District Water-Quality Specialist and updated regularly so that they are available to all District staff. Proper handling and documentation before, during, and after field activities are essential to ensure the integrity of the sample and to correct erroneous reporting of data results. Field sites are to be properly identified and entered into the data base before field data-collection activities begin. During field activities, field notes are to be completed and sample bottles appropriately labeled a nd stored. After field activities, all paperwork is to be completed promptly and samples transferred to the laboratory within allowable holding times. All equipment used by District personnel for the collection and processing of water-quality samples is to be properly operated, maintained, and calibrated by project personnel. This includes equipment for onsite measurement of water-quality characteristics (temperature, specific conductance, pH, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, acidity, and turbidity) and equipment and instruments used for biological sampling. The District Water-Quality Specialist and District Laboratory Coordinator are responsible for preventive maintenance and calibration of equipment in the Ohio District laboratory. The USGS National Water Quality Laboratory in Arvada, Colo., is the primary source of analytical services for most project work done by the Ohio District. Analyses done at the Ohio District laboratory are usually those that must be completed within a few hours of sample collection. Contract laboratories or other USGS laboratories are sometimes used instead of the NWQL or the Ohio District laboratory. When a contract laboratory is used, the projec

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS1979

Preconstruction and postconstruction ground-water levels, Lock and Dam 1, Red River Valley, Louisiana

Proposed construction of a series of locks and dams in the Red River in Louisiana will cause a permanent increase in average river stage. The potentiometric surface of the shallow alluvial aquifer and the water table in the fine-grained material confining the aquifer will be affected. The purpose of this study, using digital-modeling techniques, was to predict the average postconstruction potentiometric surface (steady state) and the water table (nonsteady state) so that potential effects of the water-level changes could be evaluated. Plans for Lock and Dam 1 at mile 44 (kilometer 71) above the mouth of the Red River call for a pool elevation of 40 feet (12.2 meters) and will cause an average increase in river stage of 9 feet (2.7 meters). As a result, ground-water levels will be raised 1 foot (0.3 meter) or more within 4 miles (6.4 kilometers) of the river. The potentiometric surface may be near land surface in low-lying areas, and above land surface along the course of drainage features near the dam. The magnitude of ground-water-level fluctuations near the river will be reduced.

Louisiana↗

USGS1979

Preconstruction and postconstruction ground-water levels, Lock and Dam 2, Red River Valley, Louisiana

Proposed construction of a series of locks and dams in the Red River in Louisiana will cause a permanent increase in average river stage. The potentiometric surface of the shallow alluvial aquifer and the water table in the fine-grained material confining the aquifer will be affected. The purpose of this study using digital-modeling techniques, was to predict the average postconstruction potentiometric surface (steady state) and the water table (nonsteady state) so that potential effects of the water-level changes could be evaluated. Plans for lock and dam 2 at mile 87 (kilometer 140) above the mouth of the Red River call for a pool elevation of 58 feet (17.7 meters) and will cause an average increase in river stage of 12.5 feet (3.8 meters). As a result, ground-water levels will be raised 1 foot (0.3 meter) or more within 4 miles (6.4 kilometers) of the river and will be near land surface in low areas. The potentiometric surface may be as much as 1 to 2 feet (0.3 to 0.6 meter) above land surface south of Latanier along Chatlin Lake Canal and south of the Annandale area of Alexandria. The magnitude of ground-water-level fluctuations near the river will be reduced.

Louisiana↗

USGS1979

Preconstruction and postconstruction ground-water levels, Lock and Dam 3, Red River Valley, Louisiana

Proposed construction of a series of locks and dams in the Red River in Louisiana will cause a permanent increase in average river stage. The potentiometric surface of the shallow alluvial aquifer and the water table in the fine-grained material confining the aquifer will be affected. The purpose of this study, using digital-modeling techniques, was to predict the average postconstruction potentiometric surface (steady state) and the water table (nonsteady state) so that potential effects of the water-level changes could be evaluated. Plans for lock and dam 3 at realined mile 111 (kilometer 179) above the mouth of the Red River call for a pool elevation of 87 feet (27 meters) and will cause an average increase in river stage ranging from 21 to 3.5 feet (l.4 to 1.1 meters). As a result, ground-water levels will be raised to near land surface in low areas east of the river from the damsite to Aloha and in a 0.5-mile (0.8-kilometer) strip along the west side extending 9 miles (14 kilometers) above the dam. The potentiometric surface may be above land surface locally near the dam. The magnitude of ground-water-level fluctuations near the river will be reduced to less than half the preconstruction range.

Louisiana↗

USGS1979

Preconstruction and postconstruction ground-water levels, Lock and Dam 4, Red River Valley, Louisiana

Proposed construction of a series of locks and dams in the Red River in Louisiana will cause a permanent increase in average river stage. The potentiometric surface of the shallow alluvial aquifer and the water table in the fine-grained material confining the aquifer will be affected. The purpose of this study, using digital-modeling techniques, was to predict the average postconstruction potentiometric surface (steady state) and the water table (nonsteady state) so that potential effects of the water-level changes could be evaluated. Plans for lock and dam 4 at realined mile 154 (kilometer 250) above the mouth of the Red River call for a pool elevation of 115 feet (35 meters) and will cause an average increase in river stage ranging from 24 to 4.5 feet (7 to 1.4 meters). As a result, ground-water levels will be raised 1 foot (0.3 meter) or more between the Red River and Bayou Pierre from the dam to Coushatta , and below Campti, east of the river. The potentiometric surface may be at or near land surface in low areas between the Red River and Bayou Pierre, and above land surface locally upstream from the dam. The magnitude of ground-water-level fluctuations near the river will be reduced to less than half the present range.

Louisiana↗

USGS1979

Preconstruction and postconstruction ground-water levels, Lock and Dam 5 and 6, Red River Valley, Louisiana

Proposed construction of a series of locks and dams in the Red River in Louisiana will cause a permanent increase in average river stage. The potentiometric surface of the shallow alluvial aquifer and the water table in the fine-grained material confining the aquifer will be affected. The purpose of this study, using digital-modeling techniques, was to predict the average postconstruction potentiometric surface (steady state) and the water table (nonsteady state) so that potential effects of the water-level changes could be evaluated. Plans for lock and dam 5 at mile 243 (kilometer 390) above the mouth of the Red River call for a pool elevation of 145 feet (44 meters) and will cause an average increase in river stage of 23 feet (7.0 meters). As a result, ground-water levels in the pool area will be raised to near land surface in much of the area between the river and Bayou Pierre and as much as 2 miles (3.2 kilometers) east of the river from the dam upstream to realined mile 220 (kilometer 350). Areas of Barksdale Air Force Base where levels are now near land surface would be enlarged and extend downstream along Flat River to near Curtis. The potentiometric surface may be above land surface near Howard, Anderson Island, and Dixie Gardens. (Woodard-USGS)

Louisiana↗

USGS2013

Investigating the potential impact of efflorescent mineral crusts on water quality: complementing analytical techniques with geochemical modelling

Efflorescent crusts are a common feature forming on the surface of gold mining sites and tailings storage facilities during the dry season. Their dissolution at the start of the wet sea- son releases an acidic pulse of water rich in metal pollutants. The composition of the crusts is indicative of the water from which they precipitated. This study aimed at assessing the crust formation and dissolution processes that result in episodic changes in receiving water quality. The approach involved characterising the composition of the crusts by analytical techniques (powder X-ray di2raction (PXRD)) and establishing compositional discrepancies by modelling the formation and dissolution processes.

Conference Paper↗

USGS2001

Geochemical baseline studies and relations between water quality and streamflow in the Upper Blackfoot watershed, Montana: Data for July 1997-December 1998

We used ultraclean sampling techniques to study the solute (operationally defined as <0.2 ?m) surface water geochemistry at five sites along the Upper Blackfoot River and four sites along the Landers Fork, some in more detail and more regularly than others. We collected samples also from Hogum Creek, a tributary to the Blackfoot, from Copper Creek, a tributary to the Landers Fork, and from ground water seeps contributing to the flow along the Landers Fork. To better define the physical dynamics of the hydrologic system and to determine geochemical loads, we measured streamflow at all the sites where we took samples for water quality analysis. The Upper Blackfoot River, which drains historic mines ca. 20 Km upstream of the study area, had higher trace metal concentrations than did the Landers Fork, which drains the pristine Scapegoat Wilderness area. In both rivers, many of the major elements were inversely related to streamflow, and at some sites, several show a hysteresis effect in which the concentrations were lower on the rising limb of the hydrograph than on the falling limb. However, many of the trace elements followed far more irregular trends, especially in the Blackfoot River. Elements such as As, Cu, Fe, Mn, S, and Zn exhibited complex and variable temporal patterns, which included almost no response to streamflow differences, increased concentrations following a summer storm and at the start of snowmelt in the spring, and/or increased concentrations throughout the course of spring runoff. In summary, complex interactions between the timing and magnitude of streamflow with physical and chemical processes within the watershed appeared to greatly influence the geochemistry at the sites, and streamflow values alone were not good predictors of solute concentrations in the rivers.

Montana↗

USGS2006

Ground-water/surface-water interaction in nearshore areas of Three Lakes on the Grand Portage Reservation, northeastern Minnesota, 2003-04

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the Grand Portage Band of Chippewa Indians, applied three techniques to assess ground-water/surface-water interaction in nearshore areas of three lakes (North, Teal, and Taylor) on the Grand Portage Reservation in northeastern Minnesota. At each lake, analyses of existing aerial photographs, in-situ temperature measurements of shoreline lake sediment, and chemical analyses of surface water and pore water were conducted. Surface-water and pore-water samples were analyzed for major constituents, nutrients, and stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen. Bulk precipitation samples were collected and analyzed (1) for nutrient concentrations to determine nutrient input to the lakes through atmospheric deposition and (2) for stable isotope ratios of oxygen and hydrogen to determine a meteoric waterline that was needed for the stable isotope analyses of surface-water and pore-water samples. Total nitrogen concentrations in the precipitation samples ranged from 0.51 to 8.4 mg/L (milligrams per liter) as nitrogen at the North Lake precipitation station and from 0.42 to 2.3 mg/L as nitrogen at the Grand Portage precipitation station. Oxygen-18/oxygen-16 and deuterium/protium isotope ratios for the bulk precipitation samples lie relatively close to a meteoric waterline for northern Wisconsin, except for the ratios for samples collected on May 20, 2004. Analyses of existing aerial photographs, nearshore lake-sediment temperatures, and seasonal isotope ratios of surface-water and pore-water samples were the most valuable data for identifying locations of ground-water inflow and surface-water outseepage. Analyses of existing aerial photographs of the three lakes indicated the location of potential inflow channels and lineaments identifying potential ground-water inflow locations for pore-water sampling. Lake-sediment temperatures at potential ground-water inflow locations ranged from 4 to 16 ºC, varying between lakes, seasons, and climatic conditions. Major constituent chemistry was valuable at Taylor Lake, and to a limited extent at North and Teal Lakes, in confirming results from the isotope and lake-sediment temperature data. Ground-water inflow to North Lake likely occurs along the southwest and south shores, and along portions of the west, southeast, north, and northeast shores. Relatively cool lake-sediment temperatures along the southwest, south, west, and southeast shores, and in isolated beaver channels along the north and northeast shores of North Lake indicate potential ground-water inflow at these locations. Both localized ground-water inflow and surface-water outseepage occurs along portions of the north, northeast, southeast, and south shores, varying seasonally. Conflicting evidence for ground-water flow conditions exist for the northwest and north-northwest pore-water samples. Only minor differences in the major constituent concentrations were seen between the surface-water and pore-water samples from the North Lake area with the exception of iron and manganese concentrations. Ground-water inflow likely takes place along the south-southwest and north shores of Teal Lake, with a mixture of ground-water inflow and surface-water outseepage occurring in other areas of the lake. Cooler lake-sediment temperatures occurred along the south-southwest, west, and northwest shores, portions of the north shore, and in channels identified in aerial photographs throughout the lake, indicating potential ground-water inflow at those locations. Warmer lake-sediment temperatures along the northeast and portions of the southwest and northwest shores of Teal Lake indicate potential locations where surface-water outseepage or little ground- and surface-water interaction occurs. The major constituent concentrations were higher in the pore-water samples collected from the south-southwest and northeast shores of Teal Lake, indicating ground-water inflow. Cation adsorption, cation exchanges with hydrogen ions, and chelation with organic materials occurring in the fen surrounding the lake likely resulted in the low dissolved calcium, magnesium, and sodium concentrations in north, northwest, and west pore-water samples from the Teal Lake area. Pore-water samples from the south-southwest, north, and southwest shores of Teal Lake had isotopic compositions that plotted closest to the meteoric waterline, indicating that little evaporation or transpiration occurred in these samples and that ground-water inflow may be occurring at these locations. Surface-water outseepage from Teal Lake likely occurs along the northeast shore even though major constituent concentrations were high. Major constituent concentrations may be high because of a nearby beaver dam. Ground-water inflow to Taylor Lake likely occurs at the north and south pore-water sampling sites. Higher major constituent concentrations and the least evaporative isotope ratios were found in pore-water samples along the south, north, and west shores of Taylor Lake, indicating potential locations of ground-water inflow. However, a combination of warmer and cooler lake-sediment temperatures along the west lowland indicated that ground-water inflow and surface-water outseepage may occur at that location. Surface-water outseepage likely occurs from Taylor Lake along the south shore through a surface-water drainage channel to a downgradient bog. Warmer lake-sediment temperatures along portions of the south and southeast shores indicate that surface-water outseepage may occur at those locations. Both ground-water inflow and surface-water outseepage may occur along the west, southeast, and east shores of Taylor Lake, varying seasonally and with local precipitation. Knowledge of general water-flow directions in lake watersheds and how they may change seasonally can help water-quality specialists and lake managers address a variety of water-quality and aquatic habitat protection issues for lakes. Results from this study indicate that ground-water and surface-water interactions at the study lakes are complex, and the ability of the applied techniques to identify ground-water inflow and surface-water outseepage locations varied among the lakes. Measurement of lake-sediment temperatures proved to be a reliable and relatively inexpensive reconnaissance technique that lake managers may apply in complex settings to identify general areas of ground-water inflow and surface-water outseepage.

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