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USGS1962

Current studies of the hydrology of prairie potholes

The prairie potholes in the North-Central States and in Canada are of glacial origin. Because many of them contain ponds or marshes, they are important in the production of livestock and waterfowl. The objective of the present investigation is to determine the amount of water that accumulates in and is used in the potholes in their natural environment. Two study areas were selected in North Dakota, and construction of gaging facilities was completed in 1960. Each study area contains four potholes. Three of the potholes for each area contain dense growths of aquatic vegetation, and one is clear of aquatic vegetation. The instruments to provide the basic data for computing water losses include: water-stage recorder, water-temperature recorder, rain gage, anemometer, and hygrothermograph. Observations will also be made of ground-water levels, rate of growth and type of vegetation, and quality of water.

Circular↗

USGS1989

Geochemistry of soils and shallow ground water, with emphasis on arsenic and selenium, in part of the Garrison Diversion Unit, North Dakota, 1985-87

The Garrison Diversion Unit is being constructed to transfer water from the Missouri River (Lake Sakakawea) to areas in east-central and southeastern North Dakota for expanded irrigation of agricultural lands. During initial investigations of irrigation return flows in 1969-76, the potential effects of toxic elements were considered, and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation concluded these elements would have no adverse effects on streams receiving return flows. After the development of problems associated with selenium in irrigation return flows in the western San Joaquin Valley, Calif., in 1985, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation initiated additional studies, including an investigation conducted in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey, to assist in collecting and evaluating trace-element data. Also, in 1986, with the passage of the Garrison Diversion Unit Reformulation Act, Congress mandated that soil surveys be conducted to determine if there are "*** soil characteristics which might result in toxic or hazardous irrigation return flows." In order to address this issue, an investigation was conducted during 1995-87 by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation to determine the occurrence and distribution of arsenic, selenium, and other trace elements in the soils of six potential irrigation areas along the Garrison Diversion Unit route and in the James River basin. A total of 165 soil samples were collected and analyzed for total concentrations of as many as 42 elements, including arsenic and selenium. In addition, 81 of the samples were analyzed for water-extractable concentrations of 14 elements, including arsenic and selenium, to aid in determining the extent to which they might be mobilized by the irrigation water. In a detailed phase of the investigation, 376 water samples were collected in one of the six potential irrigation areas, the west Oakes irrigation area. Most of these samples were analyzed for arsenic, selenium, and as many as 28 other elements. Results of the investigation indicate that soils in the potential irrigation areas contain small concentrations of arsenic, selenium, and other trace elements. The geometric mean concentrations of total arsenic and selenium were 4.15 and 0.13 milligrams per kilogram, respectively, which are considerably smaller than those measured in the western San Joaquin Valley, Calif., and soils from other areas in the western United States. Water-extractable concentrations of arsenic and selenium, determined on 1:5 soil to water extractions, generally were less than 10 percent of the total concentrations. The geometric mean water-extractable concentrations for both elements were 0.02 milligram per kilogram or less. The median and maximum concentrations of all constituents and properties indicative of irrigation drainage were tens to hundreds of times smaller in the Oakes test area drains than in western San Joaquin Valley drains. The maximum arsenic concentration in ground-water samples was 44 micrograms per liter, and the median concentration was 4 micrograms per liter. The maximum concentration in drain samples was 11 micrograms per liter, and the median concentration was 3 micrograms per liter. Only 22 percent of the water samples collected from wells in the Oakes test area contained detectable concentrations (1 microgram per liter or more) of selenium. However, selenium was detected in 63 percent of the samples collected from sites on drains. The greater incidence of detection of selenium in the drain samples is interpreted as an effect of the more oxidizing environment of the drains, which are about 8 feet below land surface near the top of the water table. The median selenium concentration in the drain samples, however, was only 1 microgram per liter, and the maximum concentration in 63 drain samples was 4 micrograms per liter. For comparison, the median selenium concentrations reported for drains in the western San Joaquin Valley, Calif., ranged from 84 to 320 micrograms per liter. Mater from two observation wells had the largest selenium concentrations (8 and 9 micrograms per liter) measured during the investigation. These were the only two samples that exceeded any of the water-quality regulations, standards, or criteria for selenium. Mercury and boron were the only other trace elements that exceeded standards and criteria. The median concentration of mercury was less than 0.1 microgram per liter, and the maximum concentration was 0.8 microgram per liter. The chronic freshwater-aquatic-life criterion for mercury (0.012 microgram per liter) is about 10 times less than the laboratory detection limit and is derived from bioconcentration factors based on methylmercury. Two boron samples exceeded the irrigation criteria of 750 micrograms per liter. Comparisons with criteria and standards indicate that the concentrations of trace elements determined in samples from wells and drains in the Oakes test area during this investigation should not adversely affect human and aquatic life or irrigated crops. The data collected indicate that the soils and ground water in the Garrison Diversion Unit contain small concentrations of trace elements, including arsenic and selenium. Based on a detailed study of soils and ground water in the west Oakes irrigation area, however, there is no evidence that expanded irrigation will mobilize these elements in concentrations large enough to adversely affect aquatic life in the James River ecosystem, based on current regulations, standards, and criteria. Data are not currently available to make definitive statements about selenium concentrations in ground water in Garrison Diversion Unit irrigation areas other than the west Oakes Irrigation area. Data available on total and water-extractable selenium concentrations in soils t however, indicate that concentrations in ground water would be similar to those determined in the west Oakes irrigation area. Plans have been developed to sample ground water in the additional areas.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS1999

North Dakota

North Dakota prairies contain numerous wetlands. The complex functions of these prairie wetlands have been of interest for decades. The hydrology, water chemistry, and biological characteristics of these wetlands are highly variable because of extreme warm/cold and wet/dry conditions. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has been conducting studies (fig. 1) to gain insight into the functions of the prairie wetlands. The USGS Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center in Jamestown has maintained an active wetland research program since the mid-1960’s. Current work in North Dakota began in 1978, and focuses on the response of biological communities to climate-induced variations in hydrology and chemistry, and on evaluating the success of previously drained wetlands restored under the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) and on similar lands. The information provided from this long-term study has provided the bulk of our knowledge about prairie wetlands, and has provided land managers with valuable information to manage the Nation’s prairie wetland resource.

North Dakota↗

USGS2005

Ground-water availability from surficial aquifers in the Red River of the North Basin, Minnesota

Population growth and commercial and industrial development in the Red River of the North Basin in Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota have prompted the Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Department of the Interior, to evaluate sources of water to sustain this growth. Nine surficial-glacial (surficial) aquifers (Buffalo, Middle River, Two Rivers, Beach Ridges, Pelican River, Otter Tail, Wadena, Pineland Sands, and Bemidji-Bagley) within the Minnesota part of the basin were identified and evaluated for their ground-water resources. Information was compiled and summarized from published studies to evaluate the availability of ground water. Published information reviewed for each of the aquifers included location and extent, physical characteristics, hydraulic properties, ground-water and surface-water interactions, estimates of water budgets (sources of recharge and discharge) and aquifer storage, theoretical well yields and actual ground-water pumping data, recent (2003) ground-water use data, and baseline ground-water-quality data. Water-budget estimates for the aquifers were compiled from steady-state aquifer simulations, precipitation data and hydrograph analysis, and recharge and discharge information. Major sources of recharge to the aquifers are areal recharge, flow from surface water, and flow across aquifer boundaries from adjacent geologic units. Losses of water from the aquifers include evapotranspiration, flow to surface water, flow across aquifer boundaries, and withdrawals by pumping wells. The Bemidji-Bagley, Otter Tail, Pineland Sands, and Wadena surficial aquifers have the highest rates of water inflow and outflow of the nine aquifers in the study area, and the Middle River surficial aquifer has the lowest rates of total water inflow and outflow. Maximum storage volumes of five of the surficial aquifers were calculated using areal extent and published saturated thickness and porosity data. Storage estimates from published studies were included for three of the surficial aquifers. Maximum theoretical well yields for the aquifers generally occur in areas with more abundant, well-sorted, coarse-grained sediment. In 2003, 28 billion gallons of ground water were withdrawn from the aquifers, not including water used for private supply. In 2003, the largest volume of ground water was withdrawn from the Otter Tail surficial aquifer, and the smallest volume was withdrawn from the the Middle River surficial aquifer. Agricultural irrigation and public supply totaled 95 percent of the volume of ground water withdrawn from the aquifers in 2003. Ground-water-quality data indicate that the Buffalo aquifer contained the largest specific conductance and concentrations of dissolved solids, calcium, magnesium, sodium, sulfate, and iron. Ground water from the Bemidji-Bagley, Otter Tail, Pineland Sands, and Wadena surficial aquifers contained the largest concentrations of nitrate (as nitrogen). In general, the nine aquifers are hydraulically connected to local surface water. Simulations of ground-water development for some of the aquifers describe correlations between increased ground-water withdrawals and declining lake levels and streamflows, lower water-table altitudes, and variations in ground-water quality. On the basis of data and methods presented to evaluate ground-water availability, the Otter Tail and Pineland Sands surficial aquifers and Pelican River sand-plain aquifer have the greatest potential for additional development of ground-water resources in the study area.

Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota↗

USGS1977

Ground-water resources of Griggs and Steele Counties, North Dakota

Griggs and Steele Counties, in east-central North Dakota, are underlain by bedrock of Ordovician, Jurassic, and Cretaceous ages. The Fall River and Lakota Formations of Cretaceous age form the Dakota aquifer. The fractured upper part of the Pierre Formation (shale), also of Cretaceous age, forms another bedrock aquifer. The Dakota aquifer, which consists mainly of interbedded shale and sandstone units, may yield as much as 500 gallons per minute (32 liters per second) of sodium sulfate water to wells at selected locations. The Pierre aquifer yields from 1 to 10 gallons per minute (0.06 to 0.63 liters per second) of sodium bicarbonate or sodium sulfate water to wells. Four major glacial-drift aquifers are present in the study area. The Spiritwood aquifer system may supply as much as 1,500 gallons per minute (95 liters per second) of water to wells. Water samples contained dissolved-solids concentrations ranging from 244 to 9,800 milligrams per liter. The Galesburg aquifer will yield as much as 1,000 gallons per minute (63 liters per second) of water to wells. Water samples contained dissolved-solids concentrations ranging from 317 to 2,170 milligrams per liter. The McVille aquifer will yield as much as 500 gallons per minute (32 liters per second) to wells. Water samples contained dissolved-solids concentrations ranging from 449 to 2,200 milligrams per liter. The Elk Valley aquifer could yield 30 gallons per minute (2 liters per second) to wells. Water samples contained dissolved-solids concentrations ranging from 397 to 2,890 milligrams per liter. Six communities in the project area use ground-water supplies. Rural water districts are being developed in the two-county area that will provide dependable ground-water supplies for many farms and small municipalities. The Spiritwood aquifer system and the McVille and Galesburg aquifers are capable of supplying the water needs of these districts and could also provide water for irrigation.

North Dakota↗

USGS2001

Water resources of the Lake Traverse Reservation, South and North Dakota, and Roberts County, South Dakota

In 1994, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux Tribe; Roberts County; and the South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Geological Survey Program, began a 6-year investigation to describe and quantify the water resources of the area within the 1867 boundary of the Lake Traverse Reservation and adjacent parts of Roberts County. Roberts County is located in extreme northeastern South Dakota, and the 1867 boundary of the Lake Traverse Reservation encompasses much of Roberts County and parts of Marshall, Day, Codington, and Grant Counties in South Dakota and parts of Richland and Sargent Counties in southeast North Dakota. This report includes descriptions of the quantity, quality, and availability of surface and ground water, the extent of the major glacial and bedrock aquifers and named outwash groups, and surface- and ground-water uses within the 1867 boundary of the Lake Traverse Reservation and adjacent parts of Roberts County. The surface-water resources within the 1867 boundary of the Lake Traverse Reservation and adjacent parts of Roberts County include rivers, streams, lakes, and wetlands. The Wild Rice and Bois de Sioux Rivers are tributaries of the Red River within the Souris-Red-Rainy River Basin; the Little Minnesota, Jorgenson, and North Fork Whetstone Rivers are tributaries of the Minnesota River within the Upper Mississippi River Basin, and the James and Big Sioux Rivers are tributaries within the Missouri River Basin. Several of the larger lakes within the study area have been developed for recreation, while many of the smaller lakes and wetlands are used for livestock watering or as wildlife production areas. Statistical summaries are presented for the water-quality data of six selected streams within the study area, and the dominant chemical species are listed for 17 selected lakes within the study area. The glacial history of the study area has led to a rather complex system of glacial aquifers. The boundaries of 11 aquifers and 6 named outwash groups were delineated based on hydrogeologic cross sections, water levels, and water-quality similarities/dissimilarities. The glacial aquifers include Coteau Lakes system, Big Sioux, Alta-mont, Revillo, James, Veblen system, Spiritwood, Hankinson, Rosholt, Milnor Channel, and Fairmount; the bedrock aquifer included in this report is the Dakota. Named outwash groups include the Prairie Coteau, Lonesome Lake, Marday, Eden, Roslyn, and Wilmot. A summary of the character-istics of each of the major aquifers and outwash groups and a summary of selected chemical analyses for each aquifer and outwash group are presented. All aquifers and outwash groups in the study area have either moderately hard or very hard water and are considered fresh to slightly saline. One or more water samples from some of the aquifers and outwash groups have a constituent that was above the recommended or mandatory limit for drinking water. Most aquifers and outwash groups have dissolved solids and sulfate contents above the recommended levels of 500 and 250 mg/L (milligrams per liter), respectively. The Dakota aquifer was the only one to have a mean chloride concentration above the recommended level of 250 mg/L. Nitrate concentrations greater than the mandatory limit of 10 mg/L were found in the Big Sioux aquifer and the Coteau Lakes and Veblen aquifer systems. Concentrations of arsenic greater than 10 ?g/L (micrograms per liter) were found in the Coteau Lakes and Veblen aquifer systems, and in the Rosholt and Fairmount aquifers. Municipalities and rural water systems currently provide most of the water used in the study area-nearly all of it from ground-water sources. Surface-water use is limited to livestock watering. About 55 percent of the total water used in Roberts County is for domestic purposes, with most domestic users served by a public supply system. Irrigation accounts for about 10 percent of the total water used. All

North Dakota, South Dakota↗

USGS2001

Hydrologic setting and geochemical characterization of free-phase hydrocarbons in the alluvial aquifer at Mandan, North Dakota, November 2000

Free-phase hydrocarbons are present in the alluvial aquifer at Mandan, North Dakota. A large contaminant body of the hydrocarbons [light nonaqueous phase liquid (LNAPL)] floats on the water table about 20 feet below land surface. The main LNAPL body is about 6 feet thick, and the areal extent is about 657,000 square feet. A study was conducted to describe the hydrologic setting and characterize the geochemical composition of the free-phase hydrocarbons in the alluvial aquifer. Most of the study area is underlain by alluvium of the Heart River Valley that ranges in thickness from about 25 to 109 feet. The alluvium can be divided into three stratigraphic units silty clay, silty sand, and sand and is underlain by shales and sandstones. Monitoring wells were installed prior to this study, to an average depth of about 29 feet. Regional ground-water flow in the Heart River aquifer generally may be from west-northwest to eastsoutheast and is influenced by hydraulic connections to the river. Hydraulic connections also are probable between the aquifer and the Missouri River. Ground-water flow across the north boundary of the aquifer is minimal because of adjacent shales and sandstones of relatively low permeability. Recharge occurs from infiltration of precipitation and is spatially variable depending on the thickness of overlying clays and silts. Although the general water-table gradient may be from west-northwest to east-southeast, the flow directions can vary depending on the river stage and recharge events. Any movement of the LNAPL is influenced by the gradients created by changes in water-level altitudes. LNAPL samples were collected from monitoring wells using dedicated bailers. The samples were transferred to glass containers, stored in the dark, and refrigerated before shipment for analysis by a variety of analytical techniques. For comparison purposes, reference-fuel samples provided by the refinery in Mandan also were analyzed. These reference-fuel samples included a current diesel fuel, a closely related but slightly broader refinery-cut fuel, a crude-oil composite, unleaded regular gasoline, and additives. Four principal analytical techniques were used for geochemical characterization: Purge-and-trap gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (volatile components); capillary gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (semivolatile components); isotope ratio mass spectrometry (carbon isotopes; whole oils); and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization (additives and other organic components). Volatile analytes included solvents, disinfection byproducts, halogenated hydrocarbons, and alkylbenzenes, including benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and meta-, para-, and orf/zo-xylenes. Semivolatile analytes included rt-alkanes, isoprenoid alkanes, cycloalkanes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and related compounds (naphthalenes, phenanthrenes, and dibenzothiophenes and their alkylated derivatives). Of the additives, only the diesel-fuel additive with the red dye marker was amenable to electrospray ionization. Results indicate the LNAPL consists of closely correlatable diesel fuel at various stages of degradation. All LNAPL samples contained the red dye marker for diesel fuel. None of the samples contained chlorinated solvents associated with industries such as drycleaning or automotive maintenance. Solvents such as acetone, dimethyl ether, and methylene chloride and the gasoline additives methyl-t-butyl ether (MTBE), ethyl-t-butyl ether (ETBE), and t-amyl-methyl ether (TAME) were not found. With one possible exception, no evidence of a different diesel or other hydrocarbon fuel contribution was identified. At one site near the north edge of the main LNAPL body, evidence exists for traces of possible gasoline components in addition to the diesel fuel. The geochemical analysis of the LNAPL and correlations with other fuel products and additives strongly suggest episodic releases of a single, local-source, diesel fuel into the aquifer over an extended period of time.

North Dakota↗

USGS1982

Altitude and configuration of the 1980 water table in the High Plains regional aquifer, northwestern Oklahoma

The High Plains aquifer in Oklahoma is part of a regional aquifer system extending from South Dakota on the north through Wyoming, Colorado Nebraska Kansas, and Oklahoma to Texas and New Mexico on the south (index map) . The principal aquifer, the Ogallala Formation of Tertiary age, is hydraulically connected with other unconsolidated . deposits, principally of Quaternary age . Alluvium and terrace deposits in hydrologic continuity with the Qgallala are included in the High Plains aquifer in Oklahoma. Parts of the underlying bedrock also are hydraulically connected with the Ogallala. The High Plains aquifer in Oklahoma has been eroded on the west, exposing underlying rocks of Cretaceous age, and on the east, exposing rocks of Permian age. During 1978, the U.S. Geological Survey began a 5-year study of the High Plains regional aquifer system to provide hydrologic information for evaluation of the effects of long-term development of the aquifer and to develop computer models for prediction of aquifer response to alternative changes in ground-water management (Weeks, 1978). This report is one of a series presenting hydrologic information of the High Plains aquifer in Oklahoma. The altitude and configuration of the water table are shown for the eastern area, consisting of Harper, Ellis, Woodward, Dewey, and Roger Mills Counties (sheet 1), and for the Panhandle area, consisting of Cimarron, Texas, and Beaver Counties (sheet 2). Water levels were measured in January, February, and March 1980 by the Oklahoma Water Resources Board.

Oklahoma↗

USGS2003

Hydrological, chemical, and biological characteristics of a prairie pothole wetland complex under highly variable climate conditions: The Cottonwood Lake area, east-central North Dakota

Geologic deposits in the Cottonwood Lake area consist largely of silty, clayey glacial till that contains numerous fractures and small, randomly distributed sand and gravel deposits. The sand deposits can have a substantial effect on groundwater flow between wetlands in the area and can cause some to drain while others have relatively stable inflow. Direct precipitation and runoff from snowmelt are the primary sources of water to the wetlands and evaporation accounts for the largest loss of water from the wetlands. The wetlands in the study area have a range of functions with respect to their interaction with ground water. Some of the seasonal wetlands recharge ground water and others recharge ground water and receive ground-water discharge. The semipermanent wetlands receive ground-water discharge much of the time, but some have reversals of flow between them and the groundwater system nearly every year. Ground-water flow toward the wetlands is caused by recharge in the uplands and by focused recharge near the wetland perimeters. Flow from the semipermanent wetlands to the ground-water system occurs when the wetland water levels are higher than the contiguous water table, resulting in bank storage, and when evapotranspiration directly from the ground-water system causes seepage around the wetland perimeters. Substantial climate variability during the study period caused the wetlands to range from being completely dry to having such high water levels that some of the wetlands merged to become large lakes.

North Dakota↗

USGS1996

Sampling design for assessing water quality of the Red River of the North basin, Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota, 1993-1995

This map report describes the sampling design for a comprehensive regional assessment of water quality in the Red River of the North Basin, a study unit under the U.S. Geological Survey’s National Water-Quality Assessment Program. The sampling design was developed to address questions about the presence, distribution, and loads of nutrients and pesticides associated with large agricultural regions in the basin and across the Nation. The design also begins to address major local and regional concerns about suspended sediment in surface water and naturally occurring salinity in ground water. Recognizing that the Red River of the North Basin study unit realistically could not be analyzed as a single homogeneous area, a hierarchical sampling stratification for assessing water quality was developed. Landscape features consisting of physiography, soils, land cover and land use, and cropping patterns provided the environmental framework for stratification of streams and surficial aquifers. The environmental framework characterizes the climate and hydrology and relates closely to an ecoregions framework. The environmental and ecoregions frameworks were considered in locating ecological sampling sites. For the subsurface framework, buried sand and gravel aquifers in study unit were subdivided into two general subregions of differing potential saline recharge from underlying bedrock aquifers. Actual sampling sites for streams, aquatic biology, and ground water were described within the proposed sampling stratification. Practical considerations of previously established sampling sites, background information from previous hydrologic investigations, and site suitability for sampling protocols also were considered for final site selection.

Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota↗

USGS1997

Dynamics of water-table fluctuations in an upland between two prairie-pothole wetlands in North Dakota

Data from a string of instrumented wells located on an upland of 55 m width between two wetlands in central North Dakota, USA, indicated frequent changes in water-table configuration following wet and dry periods during 5 years of investigation. A seasonal wetland is situated about 1.5 m higher than a nearby semipermanent wetland, suggesting an average ground water-table gradient of 0.02. However, water had the potential to flow as ground water from the upper to the lower wetland during only a few instances. A water-table trough adjacent to the lower semipermanent wetland was the most common water-table configuration during the first 4 years of the study, but it is likely that severe drought during those years contributed to the longevity and extent of the water-table trough. Water-table mounds that formed in response to rainfall events caused reversals of direction of flow that frequently modified the more dominant water-table trough during the severe drought. Rapid and large water-table rise to near land surface in response to intense rainfall was aided by the thick capillary fringe. One of the wettest summers on record ended the severe drought during the last year of the study, and caused a larger-scale water-table mound to form between the two wetlands. The mound was short in duration because it was overwhelmed by rising stage of the higher seasonal wetland which spilled into the lower wetland. Evapotranspiration was responsible for generating the water-table trough that formed between the two wetlands. Estimation of evapotranspiration based on diurnal fluctuations in wells yielded rates that averaged 3–5 mm day −1 . On many occasions water levels in wells closer to the semipermanent wetland indicated a direction of flow that was different from the direction indicated by water levels in wells farther from the wetland. Misinterpretation of direction and magnitude of gradients between ground water and wetlands could result from poorly placed or too few observation wells, and also from infrequent measurement of water levels in wells.

Journal of Hydrology↗

USGS2007

Nutrients, suspended sediment, and pesticides in water of the Red River of the North Basin, Minnesota and North Dakota, 1990-2004

Nutrient, suspended sediment, and pesticide data from 1990 through 2004 in the Red River of the North Basin were compiled, summarized, and compared to historical data. Streamflow varied widely throughout the basin during the 1990-2004 study period. For 19 of 22 streamflow sites, median annual streamflow during the study period exceeded the long-term average streamflow. High streamflow can have a substantial effect on water quality. In water samples from selected surface-water sites, nitrite plus nitrate concentrations ranged from less than 0.005 to 7.7 milligrams per liter; total Kjeldahl nitrogen concentrations ranged from 0.1 to 7.5 milligrams per liter; total phosphorus concentrations ranged from less than 0.005 to 4.14 milligrams per liter; and dissolved phosphorus concentrations ranged from 0.003 to 4.13 milligrams per liter. Surface-water samples from the Pembina River basin generally had higher nitrite plus nitrate, total phosphorus, and suspended sediment concentrations compared to samples from other Red River Basin sites. Historical data from 1970 through 1990 showed relatively high nitrite plus nitrate and suspended sediment concentrations in samples from some Pembina River sites; in contrast to the 1990-2004 period, total phosphorus concentrations from the 1970-90 period generally were highest at Red River of the North sites. Nitrate concentrations in ground-water samples for the 1990-2004 period were highest in Sheridan County, North Dakota and Marshall and Otter Tail Counties in Minnesota. Concentrations of nitrate in ground water in Marshall and Otter Tail Counties corresponded to relatively high reported fertilizer applications during 2002; however, Sheridan County did not have the high fertilizer applications in 2002 compared to other North Dakota and Minnesota counties. The most frequently detected pesticides or pesticide metabolites were 2, 4-D, bentazon, de-ethylatrazine, metolachlor, picloram, and triallate in surface water and alachlor ethanesulfonic acid (ESA), atrazine, de-ethylatrazine, picloram, and triazine in ground water. None of the most frequently detected pesticides or metabolites sampled and analyzed by the U.S. Geological Survey or available in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Storage and Retrieval System (STORET) during 1990-2004 were detected frequently during 1970-90, with the exception of 2,4-D.

Minnesota, North Dakota↗

USGS1998

Evaporation from a small prairie wetland in the Cottonwood Lake area, North Dakota - An energy-budget study

Evaporation from Wetland P1 in the Cottonwood Lake area of North Dakota, USA was determined by the energy-budget method for 1982–85 and 1987. Evaporation rates were as high as 0.672 cm day −1 . Incoming solar radiation, incoming atmospheric radiation, and long-wave radiation emitted from the water body are the largest energy fluxes to and from the wetland. Because of the small heat storage of the water body, evaporation rates closely track solar radiation on short time scales. The effect of advected energy related to precipitation is small because the water quickly heats up by solar radiation following precipitation. Advected energy related to ground water is minimal because ground-water fluxes are small and ground-water temperature is only about 7 °C. Energy flux related to sediment heating and thermal storage in the sediments, which might be expected to be large because the water is clear and shallow, affects evaporation rates by less than 5 percent.

North Dakota↗

USGS1989

Geochemistry of the Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer system in the northern Midwest, United States: D in Regional aquifer-system analysis

Distributions of solutes in aquifers of Cambrian and Ordovician age were studied in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, northwestern Indiana, and northern Missouri to determine the sources of solutes and the probable chemical mechanisms that control regional variations in water quality. This work is part of the Northern Midwest Regional Aquifer-System Analysis project, whose objective is to describe and model the regional hydrogeology of the Cambrian- Ordovician aquifer system in the study region. The data base used included more than 3,000 ground-water-quality analyses from all major aquifers, but especially from the St. Peter, Jordan, and Mount Simon Sandstones and their equivalents. Regional variations in the water chemistry of glacial drift and other sedimentary units that overlie the Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer system in recharge areas in Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois were also studied, but to a lesser degree. The most important chemical variation in the aquifer is the change in water type from calcium-sodium-sulfate-bicarbonate water to sodium-calcium-sulfate-bicarbonate and sodium-chloride waters along the longest regional flow path from northwestern Iowa to the Illinois basin. Sodium predominance downgradient from the recharge area is probably related to mechanisms of ion exchange and shalemembrane filtration near the Illinois and Forest City basins. The most striking aspect of the distribution of dissolved solids and carbon isotopic content of bicarbonate is the increase in concentration and isotopic enrichment from southwestern Wisconsin, southern Minnesota, and northwestern Illinois south toward Missouri. This trend is perpendicular to the present hydraulic gradient that trends from northwestern Iowa southeastward to the Illinois basin. The distribution of dissolved solids defines a "plume" of dilute water having a dissolved-solids concentration of about 500 milligrams per liter, compared with surrounding concentrations more than twice as large. Distribution of the isotopic content of oxygen (<518O) and hydrogen (5D) in water closely parallels that of dissolved solids and shows covariance similar to modern meteoric water. The isotopic contents are more depleted (lighter) toward the south, perpendicular to the direction of current hydraulic gradients. The degree of depletion, compared with the isotopic content of modern recharge water, indicates that the plume and a significant fraction of the ground water in Iowa, northern Missouri, and possibly central Illinois may have originated as recharge during Pleistocene time. Distributions of dissolved trace constituents in the aquifers probably are related to the proximity to mineralogic sources as well as chemical and hydraulic mechanisms. For example, concentrations of some constituents, such as cadmium and arsenic, are largest in the vicinity of the Dakota Formation in northwestern Iowa. Other constituents, such as beryllium and vanadium, have larger concentrations near the edge of the Forest City basin in southwestern Iowa and northwestern Missouri. Strontium and fluoride concentrations generally increase from north to south, which suggests the input of these trace constituents during the recharge events. However, concentrations of bromide, radium-226, and lithium show distribution patterns similar to the "plume" defined by dissolved solids and isotopes of water, suggesting dilution of concentrations of trace constituents by Pleistocene recharge. Concentrations of other constituents are partly controlled by aquifer temperature, such as silica in south-central Iowa, and solubility controls, such as barium in northeastern Illinois. Additional information on the chemical and mineralogical composition of the aquifer matrix and the isotopically lightest ground water is needed to evaluate the hypothesis of Pleistocene mixing before more quantitative studies can be done to evaluate the different proposed mechanisms that have controlled and modified the water chemistry over time. This study, however, indicates that the ground water in the region is thousands of years old. The study also indicates that the major chemical trends in the aquifers probably are related as much to paleohydrogeologic flow systems during Pleistocene time as to the present flow system, which may postdate the retreat of the last ice sheet about 12,000 years ago.

Iowa, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, Miss↗

USGS1991

Work plan for regional reconnaissance for selected herbicides and nitrate in ground water of the mid-continent United States, 1991

An approach was developed to obtain a consistent, regional distribution of herbicide and nitrate data from near-surface aquifers in the corn and soybean producing region of the mid-continent. Near-surface aquifers are defined as those with the top of aquifer material within 50 feet of land surface, regardless of whether the material is saturated or unsaturated. Three hundred wells will be selected for sampling from 12 states. These States include Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. The reconnaissance data obtained will be used to determine the spatial and seasonal distribution of selected herbicides, two atrazine metabolites, and nitrate in near-surface aquifers in the study region. Hydrologic, geologic, and land-use data will be collected for use in an exploratory statistical analysis to help explain the herbicide distribution.

Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minneso↗

USGS2000

Effects of water conditions on clutch size, egg volume, and hatchling mass of mallards and gadwalls in the Prairie Pothole Region

We examined the relationship between local water conditions (measured as the percent of total area of basins covered by water) and clutch size, egg volume, and hatchling mass of Mallards ( Anas platyrhynchos ) and Gadwalls ( A. strepera ) on four study sites in the Prairie Pothole Region of North Dakota and Minnesota, 1988–1994. We also examined the relationship between pond density and clutch size of Mallards and Gadwalls, using data collected at another North Dakota site, 1966–1981. For Mallards, we found no relationships to be significant. For Gadwalls, clutch size increased with percent basin area wet and pond density; hatchling mass marginally increased with percent basin area wet. These species differences may reflect, in part, that Mallards acquire lipid reserves used to produce early clutches before they reach the breeding grounds, whereas Gadwalls acquire lipid reserves locally; thus Gadwall clutches are more likely to be influenced by local food resources.

Minnesota, North Dakota↗

USGS2000

Effects of water conditions on clutch size, egg volume, and hatchling mass of mallards and gadwalls in the Prairie Pothole Region

We examined the relationship between local water conditions (measured as the percent of total area of basins that was covered by water) and clutch size, egg volume, and hatchling mass of Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and Gadwalls (A. strepera) on four study sites in the Prairie Pothole Region of North Dakota and Minnesota, 1988-1994. We also examined the relationship between pond density and clutch size of Mallards and Gadwalls, using data collected at another North Dakota site, 1966-1981. For Mallards, we found no relationships to be significant. For Gadwalls, clutch size increased with percent basin area wet and pond density; hatchling mass marginally increased with percent basin area wet. These species differences may reflect, in part, that Mallards acquire lipid reserves used to produce early clutches before they reach the breeding grounds, whereas Gadwalls acquire lipid reserves locally; thus Gadwall clutches are more likely to be influenced by local food resources.

Condor↗

USGS2004

Patterns of variation in clutch sizes in a guild of temperate-nesting dabbling ducks

Clutch sizes of temperate-nesting dabbling ducks vary widely within and between years. Biologists have long been interested in why such patterns exist but have had difficulty separating intrinsic effects from environmental influences. In an attempt to gain greater insight into the roles of intrinsic and environmental influences on clutch sizes of dabbling ducks, we compared clutch-size patterns of mallard, northern pintail, gadwall, northern shoveler, and blue-winged teal in North Dakota and South Dakota over a 3-year period. The study was conducted during 1993-1995 when wetland habitat conditions were exceptionally consistent within time intervals but varied widely from the onset to the end of the study. We found that clutch sizes of gadwall and blue-winged teal were significantly smaller at the onset of nesting in 1993, when water conditions remained relatively poor following a 5-year drought (1988-1992), and pintail clutch sizes were larger late in the breeding season in 1993 after wetland conditions became exceptionally productive following heavy rains in late May and June. These findings were associated with gadwall and teal relying primarily on nutrients acquired on the breeding grounds to produce early clutches, and pintails using an exceptionally high proportion of their body lipids to produce early clutches, making this species highly dependent on abundant local sources of lipids for clutches produced later. Mallard, pintail, and shoveler rely largely on endogenous lipids carried to the breeding grounds to produce early clutches, and at least in the years of study, clutch sizes exhibited minimal variation at the onset of nesting. Our findings, when examined in context with existing information, suggest that interspecific variation in clutch sizes results from innate differences in several traits -- including body size, diet, timing of lipid acquisition, and nesting-- that affect the amount of lipid available for egg production. Annual differences in clutch sizes of all five species were not significant when effects of annual variation in nest initiation dates was accounted for, reflecting the key role of environmental influences on intraspecific variation among years.

The Auk↗