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USGS2001

Garnet granulite xenoliths from the Northern Baltic shield: The underplated lower crust of a palaeoproterozoic large igneous province

Garnet granulite facies xenoliths hosted in Devonian lamprophyres from the Kola Peninsula are interpreted to represent the high-grade metamorphic equivalents of continental flood tholeiites, emplaced into the Baltic Shield Archaean lower crust in early Proterozoic time. Geochronological data and similarities in major and trace element geochemistry suggest that the xenoliths formed during the same plume-related magmatic event that created a widespread Palaeoproterozoic large igneous province (LIP) at 2·4–2·5 Ga. They are, thus, the first samples of the lower crust of a Palaeoproterozoic LIP to be studied in petrological detail. The suite includes mafic granulites (gar + cpx + rutile ± plag ± opx ± phlog ± amph), felsic granulites (plag + gar + cpx + rutile ± qtz ± Kspar ± phlog ± amph) and pyroxenites (± phlog ± amph), but mafic garnet granulites predominate. Although some samples are restites, there is no evidence for a predominance of magmatic cumulates, as is common for Phanerozoic lower-crustal xenolith suites. Metasediments are also absent. Phlogopite and/or amphibole occur in xenoliths of all types and are interpreted to be metasomatic in origin. The K-rich metasomatic event occurred at ∼2·0 Ga, and led to substantial enrichment in Rb, K, LREE/HREE, Th/U, Th/Pb and, to a lesser extent, Nb and Ti. The fluids responsible for this metasomatism were probably derived from a second plume that arrived beneath the region at this time. Evidence for partial melting of mafic crust exists in the presence of migmatitic granulites. The timing of migmatization overlaps that of metasomatism, and it is suggested that migmatization was facilitated by the metasomatism. The metamorphism, metasomatism and migmatization recorded in the Kola granulite xenoliths may be representative of the processes responsible for converting Archaean LIP-generated proto-continents into continental crust.

Elovy Island, Kandalaksha Gulf, Kola Peninsula, Wh↗

USGS2020

In situ measurements of compressional wave speed during gravity coring operations in the New England mud patch

This paper presents measurements of sediment sound-speed profiles measured in situ using the acoustic coring system (ACS). The reported measurements were obtained from seven gravity cores collected in the New England Mud Patch. The ACS uses two sets of transducers mounted below the penetrating tip of a sediment corer to make in situ measurements of geoacoustic properties as the corer penetrates the seabed. The in situ sound-speed profiles are interpreted in the context of stratigraphic layering measured by a seismic survey, and the measured sound-speed profiles are consistent with the geophysical description. The in situ sound-speed profiles measured by the ACS were compared to conventional measurements of sound speed on the recovered cores using the multisensor core logger (MSCL). The MSCL data displayed both random and systematic errors that were attributed to disturbance from the coring process and/or the handling of the sediments after collection. Finally, using porosity and grain size distributions measured from discrete samples of the cored sediments, the in situ sound-speed measurements were compared to empirical regressions based on independent data sets.

Atlantic Ocean, New England Mud Patch↗

USGS2020

Development and testing of species-specific quantitative PCR assays for environmental DNA applications

New, non-invasive methods for detecting and monitoring species presence are being developed to aid in fisheries and wildlife conservation management. The use of environmental DNA (eDNA) samples for detecting macrobiota is one such group of methods that is rapidly becoming popular and being implemented in national management programs. Here we focus on the development of species-specific targeted assays for probe-based quantitative PCR (qPCR) applications. Using probe-based qPCR offers greater specificity than is possible with primers alone. Furthermore, the ability to quantify the amount of DNA in a sample can be useful in our understanding of the ecology of eDNA and the interpretation of eDNA detection patterns in the field. Careful consideration is needed in the development and testing of these assays to ensure the sensitivity and specificity of detecting the target species from an environmental sample. In this protocol we will delineate the steps needed to design and test probe-based assays for the detection of a target species; including creation of sequence databases, assay design, assay selection and optimization, testing assay performance, and field validation. Following these steps will help achieve an efficient, sensitive, and specific assay that can be used with confidence. We demonstrate this process with our assay designed for populations of the mucket ( Actinonaias ligamentina ), a freshwater mussel species found in the Clinch River, USA.

JOVE Journal Of Visualized Experiments↗

USGS2012

An interpretation of episodic slip on the Calaveras fault near Hollister, California

Data from a precision multi-wavelength distance measuring (MWDM) instrument, located near Hollister, California, have been analyzed in terms of strike-slip faulting in the region covered by the network. Four episodes of deformation that are readily identifiable in the MWDM data for the year following September 1975 can be modeled as slip on the Calaveras fault. Creepmeter data tend to support this interpretation, since the creep events and the observed episodes of deformation appear to be correlated in a temporal sense. Lower bounds on the moment for each episode of slip can be determined from the MWDM data by the technique of linear programing. The results indicate that aseismic slip is the dominant mechanism for strain release, since the combined moment of 1.16 × 10 24 dyn cm for the four episodes far exceeds the moment of all of the earthquakes that occurred during the year. Creepmeter data and geologic evidence that are taken in conjunction with the lower bound of the moment indicate that the depth of aseismic slip for some of the episodes of fault slip could extend to below the greatest depth of earthquake hypocenters for this region of central California.

Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth↗

USGS1973

Concepts of karst development in relation to interpretation of surface runoff

Some unusual characteristics of streamflow occur in regions underlain by carbonate rocks. The streamflow characteristics are related to processes of karstification, these processes being dependent on circulation of subsurface water and solution of the rock to form characteristic topography and underground cavern systems. Very highly cavernous and permeable unsaturated zones tend to keep the water table depressed below land surface in many karst regions, a condition that leads to a low density of perennial streams. The uneven distribution of permeability beneath surface karst streams causes them to lose or gain water, depending on the position of the water table with reference to stream level. The conventional techniques of interpolation and extrapolation that have been reasonably successful in approximating streamflow of ungaged sites in nonkarstic regions have only limited use in karst regions. An understanding of principles of karstification and an understanding of the hydrogeologic framework of a carbonate terrane provide a useful basis for evaluating the streamflow characteristics.

Journal of Research of the U.S. Geological Survey↗

USGS2006

Inferences about winter temperatures and summer rains from the late Quaternary record of C 4 perennial grasses and C 3 desert shrubs in the northern Chihuahuan Desert

Late Quaternary histories of two North American desert biomes—C 4 grasslands and C 3 shrublands—are poorly known despite their sensitivity and potential value in reconstructing summer rains and winter temperatures. Plant macrofossil assemblages from packrat midden series in the northern Chihuahuan Desert show that C 4 grasses and annuals typical of desert grassland persisted near their present northern limits throughout the last glacial-interglacial cycle. By contrast, key C 3 desert shrubs appeared somewhat abruptly after 5000cal.yrBP. Bioclimatic envelopes for select C 4 and C 3 species are mapped to interpret the glacial-interglacial persistence of desert grassland and the mid-to-late Holocene expansion of desert shrublands. The envelopes suggest relatively warm Pleistocene temperatures with moist summers allowed for persistence of C 4 grasses, whereas winters were probably too cold (or too wet) for C 3 desert shrubs. Contrary to climate model results, core processes associated with the North American Monsoon and moisture transport to the northern Chihuahuan Desert remained intact throughout the last glacial-interglacial cycle. Mid-latitude effects, however, truncated midsummer (July-August) moisture transport north of 35° N. The sudden expansion of desert shrublands after 5000cal.yrBP may be a threshold response to warmer winters associated with increasing boreal winter insolation, and enhanced El Niño-Southern Oscillation variability.

Arizona, New Mexico, Texas↗

USGS2007

Geology and geochronology of the Spirit Mountain batholith, southern Nevada: Implications for timescales and physical processes of batholith construction

The Spirit Mountain batholith (SMB) is a ∼ 250 km2 composite silicic intrusion located within the Colorado River Extensional Corridor in southernmost Nevada. Westward tilting of 40–50° has exposed a cross-section from the roof through deep levels of the batholith. Piecemeal construction is indicated by zircon geochronology, field relations, and elemental geochemistry. Zircon U/Pb data (SHRIMP) demonstrates a ∼ 2 million year (17.4–15.3 Ma) history for the SMB. Individual samples contain zircons with ages that span the lifetime of the batholith, suggesting recycling of extant zircon into new magma pulses. Field relations reveal several distinct intrusive episodes and suggest a common injection geometry of stacked horizontal sheets. The largest unit of the SMB is a gradational section (from roof downward) of high-silica leucogranite through coarse granite into foliated quartz monzonite. Solidification of this unit spans most of the history of the batholith. The 25 km × 2 km leucogranite was emplaced incrementally as subhorizontal sheets over most or all of the history of this section, suggesting repeated fractional crystallization and melt segregation events. The quartz monzonite and coarse granite are interpreted to be cumulate residuum of this fractionation. Age data from throughout this gradational unit show multiple zircon populations within individual samples. Subsequent distinct intrusions that cut this large unit, which include minor populations of zircons that record the ages of earlier events in construction of the batholith, preserve a sheeted, sill-on-sill geometry. We envision the SMB to have been a patchwork of melt-rich, melt-poor, and entirely solid zones throughout its active life. Preservation of intrusion geometries and contacts depended on the consistency of the host rock. Zircons recycled into new pulses of magma document remobilization of previously emplaced crystal mush, suggesting the mechanisms by which evidence for initial construction of the batholith became blurred.

Nevada↗

USGS2016

Continental rupture and the creation of new crust in the Salton Trough rift, southern California and northern Mexico: Results from the Salton Seismic Imaging Project

A refraction and wide-angle reflection seismic profile along the axis of the Salton Trough, California and Mexico, was analyzed to constrain crustal and upper mantle seismic velocity structure during active continental rifting. From the northern Salton Sea to the southern Imperial Valley, the crust is 17-18 km thick and approximately one-dimensional. The transition at depth from Colorado River sediment to underlying crystalline rock is gradual and is not a depositional surface. The crystalline rock from ~3 to ~8 km depth is interpreted as sediment metamorphosed by high heat flow. Deeper felsic crystalline rock could be stretched pre-existing crust or higher grade metamorphosed sediment. The lower crust below ~12 km depth is interpreted to be gabbro emplaced by rift-related magmatic intrusion by underplating. Low upper-mantle velocity indicates high temperature and partial melting. Under the Coachella Valley, sediment thins to the north and the underlying crystalline rock is interpreted as granitic basement. Mafic rock does not exist at 12-18 depth as it does to the south, and a weak reflection suggests Moho at ~28 km depth. Structure in adjacent Mexico has slower mid-crustal velocity and rocks with mantle velocity must be much deeper than in the Imperial Valley. Slower velocity and thicker crust in the Coachella and Mexicali valleys define the rift zone between them to be >100 km wide in the direction of plate motion. North American lithosphere in the central Salton Trough has been rifted apart and is being replaced by new crust created by magmatism, sedimentation, and metamorphism.

Journal of Geophysical Research↗

USGS2006

On the interpretation of energy and energy fluxes of nonlinear internal waves: An example from Massachusetts Bay

A self-consistent formalism to estimate baroclinic energy densities and fluxes resulting from the propagation of internal waves of arbitrary amplitude is derived using the concept of available potential energy. The method can be applied to numerical, laboratory or field data. The total energy flux is shown to be the sum of the linear energy flux ??? u??? p??? dz (primes denote baroclinic quantities), plus contributions from the non-hydrostatic pressure anomaly and the self-advection of kinetic and available potential energy. Using highly resolved observations in Massachusetts Bay, it is shown that due to the presence of nonlinear internal waves periodically propagating in the area, ??? u??? p??? dz accounts for only half of the total flux. The same data show that equipartition of available potential and kinetic energy can be violated, especially when the nonlinear waves begin to interact with the bottom. ?? 2006 Cambridge University Press.

Massachusetts Bay↗

USGS1998

Effects of slip, slip rate, and shear heating on the friction of granite

The stability of fault slip is sensitive to the way in which frictional strength responds to changes in slip rate and in particular to the effective velocity dependence of steady state friction Δμ ss /Δ ln V . This quantity can vary substantially with displacement, temperature and slip rate. To investigate the physical basis for this behavior and the possible influence of shear heating, we slid initially bare granite surfaces in unconfined rotary shear to displacements of hundreds of millimeters at normal stresses, σ n of 10 and 25 MPa and at room temperature. We imposed step changes in slip rate within the range 10 −2 to 10 3.5 μm/s and also monitored frictional heating with thermistors embedded in the granite. The transient response of μ to slip rate steps was fit to a rate- and state-dependent friction law using two state variables to estimate the values of several parameters in the constitutive law. The first 20 mm of slip shows rising friction and falling Δμ ss /Δ ln V ; further slip shows roughly constant friction, Δμ ss /Δ ln V and parameter values, suggesting that a steady state condition is reached on the fault surface. At V ≤ 10 μm/s, Δμ ss /Δ ln V = −0.004 ± 0.001. At higher rates the response is sensitive to normal stress: At σ n = 25 MPa granite shows a transition to effective velocity strengthening (Δμ ss /Δ ln V = 0.008 ± 0.004) at the highest slip rates tested. At 10 MPa granite shows a less dramatic change to Δμ ss /Δ ln V ≈ 0 at the highest rates. The maximum temperature measured in the granite is ∼60°C at 25 MPa and 10 3.5 μm/s. Temperatures are in general agreement with a numerical model of heat conduction which assumes spatially homogeneous frictional heating over the sliding surface. The simplest interpretation of our measurements of Δμ ss /Δ ln V is that the granite is inherently velocity weakening (∂μ ss /∂ ln V < 0) and temperature strengthening (∂μ ss /∂ T −1 < 0) at all velocities. At high slip rates the response of μ to changes in temperature from shear heating may outweigh the response to changing velocity, such that the net effect Δμ ss /Δ ln V > 0 mimics velocity strengthening. These results have implications for the frictional behavior of faults during earthquakes. High slip rates may cause a switch to effective velocity strengthening which could limit peak coseismic slip rate and stress drop. For fluid-saturated faults, strengthening by this mechanism may be partly or fully offset by weakening due to thermal pressurization of a poorly drained pore fluid.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗

USGS2003

Lithospheric roots beneath western Laurentia: The geochemical signal in mantle garnets

This study presents major and trace element data for 243 mantle garnet xenocrysts from six kimberlites in parts of western North America. The geochemical data for the garnet xenocrysts are used to infer the composition, thickness, and tectonothermal affinity of the mantle lithosphere beneath western Laurentia at the time of kimberlite eruption. The garnets record temperatures between 800 and 1450??C using Ni-in-garnet thermometry and represent mainly lherzolitic mantle lithosphere sampled over an interval from about 110-260 km depth. Garnets with sinuous rare-earth element patterns, high Sr, and high Sc/V occur mainly at shallow depths and occur almost exclusively in kimberlites interpreted to have sampled Archean mantle lithosphere beneath the Wyoming Province in Laurentia, and are notably absent in garnets from kimberlites erupting through the Proterozoic Yavapai Mazatzal and Trans-Hudson provinces. The similarities in depths of equilibration, but differing geochemical patterns in garnets from the Cross kimberlite (southeastern British Columbia) compared to kimberlites in the Wyoming Province argue for post-Archean replacement and (or) modification of mantle beneath the Archean Hearne Province. Convective removal of mantle lithosphere beneath the Archean Hearne Province in a "tEctonic vise" during the Proterozoic terminal collisions that formed Laurentia either did not occur, or was followed by replacement of thick mantle lithosphere that was sampled by kimberlite in the Triassic, and is still observed there seismically today.

Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences↗

USGS1991

Crustal structure of the western New England Appalachians and the Adirondack Mountains

Presents an interpretation of the crustal velocity structure based on a seismic refraction/wide-angle reflection experiment in eastern North America extending from the Adirondacks in New York State through the northern Appalachians in Vermont and New Hampshire to central Maine. Modeling of the eastern portion of the profile within the New England Appalachians shows a subhorizontal layered crust with upper crustal velocities ranging from 5.5 to 6.2 km/s, a midcrustal velocity of 6.4 km/s, and a lower crustal velocity of approximately 6.8 km/s. Crustal thickness increases from 36 km beneath Maine to 40 km in Vermont. This experiment provides further evidence for the obduction of the allochthonous western Appalachian units onto Grenvillian crust above the azone of detachment that penetrates at least to midcrustal depths and was the locus of successive Paleozoic thrusting. -from Authors

Journal of Geophysical Research↗

USGS2020

Estimating detection probability for Burmese Pythons with few detections and zero recapture events

Detection has been a long-standing challenge to monitoring populations of cryptic herpetofauna, which often have detection probabilities that are closer to zero than one. Burmese Pythons (Python bivittatus =Python molurus bivittatus), a recent invader in the Greater Everglades Ecosystem of Florida, are cryptic snakes that have long periods of inactivity. In addition, management actions such as removal of every python encountered create challenges for estimating population size and quantifying effects of management using traditional statistical approaches. We used Bayesian analysis of data collected from 59 visual surveys (144 person-surveys) covering a total distance of 485.6 km (1185.1 person-km) and radiotelemetry to estimate detection probability for Burmese Pythons, estimates which can improve interpretation of encounter and removal data. We found that detection probability ranged from 0.0001 0.0146 depending on whether or not efforts units accounted for total human effort across multiple surveyors and statistical method used. Based on our surveys, detection probabilities for Burmese Pythons are therefore likely < 0.05, but factors such as the number of searchers or time of day may improve detection probability. Traditional capture-recapture or visual surveys are, however, unlikely to yield accurate information on Burmese Python population size or trends across time without cost-prohibitive effort. Consequently, novel method development to monitor or measure Burmese Python populations, including techniques better equipped to handle very low detection, is critically needed for informative and reliable inferences about population size or the management effects of python removal.

Journal of Herpetology↗

USGS1979

Use of prairie pothole habitat by breeding mallards

Detailed information on the use by mallards ( Anas platyrhynchos ) of prairie pothole habitat during the nesting season is necessary to interpret habitat needs of the species during the breeding period. Many data have been collected and published relating pair counts to habitat use and water conditions (e.g., Evans and Black 1956; Smith 1971; Stoudt 1971; Stewart and Kantrud 1973, 1974). However, use of pair-count data to assess wetland use tends to emphasize individual wetland units and does not consider total wetland habitat required to sustain a breeding pair on a daily or seasonal basis. We therefore attempted to determine habitat use by individually radio marked mallards during the breeding period. This paper describes home range characteristics and habitat use of a radiomarked sample of mallard hens breeding in North Dakota during 1973-75. Time budget data are also presented for 2 marked pairs of mallard pairs of mallards.

North Dakota↗

USGS2026

Computational electromagnetic geophysics for groundwater system studies: A review on established practices and recent advances

Identifying effective solutions for locating groundwater resources and ensuring the quality of drinking water is increasingly urgent, given the challenges posed by climate change and population growth. This review investigates electromagnetic geophysical imaging techniques, in both time- and frequency-domain, that can provide valuable insights for groundwater assessment. We explore computational electromagnetic methods used to evaluate electromagnetic data and several recent hydrogeophysical case studies. As open-source frameworks for modeling electromagnetic geophysical problems become available, a broader range of researchers can interpret their data with computationally advanced software. We provide an overview of documented open-source codes for evaluating electromagnetic data and analyze various hydrological targets in relation to their electromagnetic surveying technique and the computational method applied. Furthermore, we evaluate the potential of advanced computational techniques, including three-dimensional modeling, non-deterministic inversion and machine learning, to couple geophysical with numerical groundwater modeling and apply it in groundwater system studies. Despite obstacles such as complexity and resource demands, our findings indicate that the quantification and integration of predictive uncertainties from both electromagnetic and hydrological data and simulations would significantly improve the reliability of hydrogeophysical models. This can lead to a deeper understanding of groundwater systems and improved management practices.

Journal of Hydrology↗

USGS2003

Classifying sea lamprey marks on Great Lakes lake trout: observer agreement, evidence on healing times between classes and recommendations for reporting of marking statistics

In 1997 and 1998 two workshops were held to evaluate how consistent observers were at classifying sea lamprey ( Petromyzon marinus ) marks on Great Lakes lake trout ( Salvelinus namaycush ) as described in the King classification system. Two trials were held at each workshop, with group discussion between trials. Variation in counting and classifying marks was considerable, such that reporting rates for A1–A3 marks varied two to three-fold among observers of the same lake trout. Observer variation was greater for classification of healing or healed marks than for fresh marks. The workshops highlighted, as causes for inconsistent mark classification, both departures from the accepted protocol for classifying marks by some agencies, and differences in how sliding and multiple marks were interpreted. Group discussions led to greater agreement in classifying marks. We recommend ways to improve the reliability of marking statistics, including the use of a dichotomous key to classify marks. Laboratory data show that healing times of marks on lake trout were much longer at 4°C and 1°C than at 10°C and varied greatly among individuals. Reported A1–A3 and B1–B3 marks observed in late summer and fall collections likely result from a mixture of attacks by two year classes of sea lamprey. It is likely that a substantial but highly uncertain proportion of attacks that occur in late summer and fall lead to marks that are classified as A1–A3 the next spring. We recommend additional research on mark stage duration.

Journal of Great Lakes Research↗

USGS2011

Spatiotemporal evolution of dike opening and décollement slip at Kīlauea Volcano, Hawai'i

Rapid changes in ground tilt and GPS positions on Kīlauea Volcano, Hawai'i, are interpreted as resulting from a shallow, two‐segment dike intrusion into the east rift zone that began at 1217 UTC (0217 HST) on 17 June 2007 and lasted almost 3 days. As a result of the intrusion, a very small volume of basalt (about 1500 m 3 ) erupted on 19 June. Northward tilt at a coastal tiltmeter, subsidence of south flank GPS sites, southeastward displacements at southwestern flank GPS sites, and a swarm of flank earthquakes suggest that a slow slip event occurred on the décollement beneath Kīlauea's south flank concurrent with the rift intrusion. We use 4 min GPS positions that include estimates of time‐dependent tropospheric gradients and ground tilt data to study the spatial and temporal relationships between the two inferred shallow, steeply dipping dike segments extending from the surface to about 2 km depth and décollement slip at 8 km depth. We invert for the temporal evolution of distributed dike opening and décollement slip in independent inversions at each time step using a nonnegative least squares algorithm. On the basis of these inversions, the intrusion occurred in two stages that correspond spatially and temporally with concentrated rift zone seismicity. The dike opening began on the western of the two segments before jumping to the eastern segment, where the majority of opening accumulated. Dike opening preceded the start of décollement slip at an 84% confidence level; the latter is indicated by the onset of northward tilt of a coastal tiltmeter. Displacements at southwest flank GPS sites began about 18 h later and are interpreted as resulting from slow slip on the southwestern flank. Additional constraints on the evolution of the intrusion and décollement slip come from inversion of an Envisat interferogram that spans the intrusion until 0822 UTC on 18 June 2007, combined with GPS and tilt data. This inversion shows that up to 0822 UTC on 18 June, décollement slip is only required in a limited region offshore of Ka'ena Point. A similar inversion of the complete event, which includes GPS and tilt data up to 21 June and a second Envisat interferogram spanning the complete intrusion until 21 June, shows décollement slip spread westward across the south flank. This may suggest westward migration of the décollement slip as the event progressed.

Hawaii↗

USGS2024

Breeding by western Yellow-billed Cuckoos in xeroriparian habitat in southeastern Arizona

The identification of occupied habitat is an important component of recovery efforts for threatened and endangered species. The western population of the Yellow-billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus), federally listed as a threatened distinct population segment, has long been considered a riparian-obligate, yet recent survey efforts in southeastern Arizona have documented cuckoos occurring in xeroriparian habitat during the nesting season. We investigated the distribution and breeding status of cuckoos in southeastern Arizona xeroriparian habitat by comparing the results of standardized call-playback surveys to the results of nest searching efforts in the same sites from 2018 to 2020. We then used this information to interpret more extensive survey data from 2013 to 2020 and develop an updated breeding distribution map for southeastern Arizona. We confirmed breeding in 94% of sites categorized as occupied according to survey results. Combining our data with previous survey data, we estimated a minimum of 100 occupied sites in southeastern Arizona xeroriparian habitat, representing a substantial increase in the known breeding population in Arizona. Occupied sites were concentrated in southern and western “Sky Island” mountain and foothill drainages, from 600–1800 m, with xeroriparian vegetation in a matrix of Madrean-evergreen woodland, semi-desert grassland, or desert scrub. Breeding by cuckoos in southeastern Arizona xeroriparian habitat is important for cuckoo conservation, but this habitat also faces potential threats from grazing, climate change, and development.

Arizona↗