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USGS1972

Geological Survey research 1972, Chapter C

This collection of 37 short papers is the second published chapter of "Geological Survey Research 1972." The papers report on scientific and economic results of current work by members of the Conservation, Geologic, and Water Resources Divisions of the U.S. Geological Survey. Chapter A, to be published later in the year, will present a summary of significant results of work done ~n fiscal year 1972, together with lists of investigations in progress, cooperating agencies, and Geological Survey offices. "Geological Survey Research 1972" is the thirteenth volume of the annual series Geological Survey Research. The twelve volumes already published are listed below, with their series designations.

Professional Paper↗
USGS1915

Contributions to the stratigraphy of southwestern Colorado

In the course of field work of the United States Geological Survey in the San Juan region of Colorado observations have been made in the last three seasons that considerably extend our knowledge of the great stratigraphic break below the La Plata sandstone, which is currently assumed to be of Jurassic age. The new data pertain partly to the relations existing in the Gunnison Valley, north of the San Juan Mountains, where the unconformity marking this break was already known at certain places, and partly to the conditions in the Piedra Valley, on the south side of the mountains, where the unconformity had not before been noted. The Piedra Valley is of special interest, and it seems well to call attention to the relations observed even though they were examined only in a reconnaissance. The first part of this paper is devoted to the evidence of the overlap of the La Plata sandstone; the second to the stratigraphic relations in the Piedra Valley. The section of sedimentary formations in Piedra Canyon is of much interest because none of the pre-La Plata formations are known east of this locality on the south side of the San Juan Mountains. Most of these formations exhibit a notably different facies where they reappear from beneath the overlying beds at their nearest exposures in New Mexico, southeast of the Piedra Valley. It is believed that the character of the formations in the Piedra section should be recorded for the benefit of geologists who may be studying the Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks of New Mexico, and accordingly the second part of the paper presents details of the structure and the stratigraphic section of Piedra Valley.

Colorado↗
USGS1915

The history of a portion of Yampa River, Colorado, and its possible bearing on that of Green River

Few regions offer more interesting geologic problems relating to drainage than the Uinta Mountains, in Utah and Colorado, and the ar3a immediately east of them. In fact, the writer's attention was primarily attracted to this field by the diversity of opinion regarding the antecedent origin of Green River. Although the present paper deals mainly with that portion of Yampa River east of Juniper Mountain, the conclusions reached are believed to have a definite bearing on the Green River problem itself. The paper is introduced by a brief discussion of the structural features of the region east of the Uinta Mountains, for a clear understanding of the relation of the minor uplifts to the great Uinta fold will better enable the reader to appreciate the possible bearing which the writer's conclusions may have in the solution of that problem.

Colorado↗
USGS1916

Contributions to the geology and paleontology of San Juan County, New Mexico: 1. Stratigraphy of a part of the Chaco River valley

This preliminary paper is an attempt to set forth the principal features of the stratigraphy in a part of the San Juan Basin-to describe the succession of strata irrespective of possible correlations and thereby to establish a type section for the formations exposed and to bring out their relations to the strata immediately above and below. The paper presents only a part of the data collected by a field party of the United States Geological Survey in the season of 1915, in charge of the writer, and does not describe the economic resources of the area, such as coal, nor the general geologic problems.

New Mexico↗
USGS1964

Water resources of the Green Bay area, Wisconsin

The Green Bay area comprises an area of about 525 square miles in eastern Wisconsin at the south end of Green Bay. It includes the western three-fourths of Brown County and the eastern one-ninth of Outagamie County. In 1960, the population of the area was estimated at 124,000. The most prominent topographic feature is the northwest-facing, southwestward trending Niagara escarpment. The area northwest of the escarpment drains into Green Bay via the Fox River, Suamico River, Duck Creek, and their tributaries. The area southeast of the escarpment is drained by streams that flow into Lake Michigan. The chief sources of surface water in the Green Bay area are the Fox River, Green Bay, and Lake Michigan. Smaller amounts of water are available from the East and Suamico Rivers and other streams. A sandstone aquifer is the principal source of the ground-water supply. The Niagara dolomite, although largely undeveloped, is potentially an important aquifer in the eastern part of the area. Small amounts of water are obtained also from the Platteville formation and from deposits of Pleistocene and Recent age. Water from the surfaceand ground-water sources is moderately hard to very hard. The Fox River, tributary to Lake Michigan at Green Bay, is a significant source of water for industrial use in the Green Bay area. The Menasha Dam, which controls release of water from the Lake Winnebago pool, is the major regulation on the Fox River, and it has considerable effect in reducing peak flows and supplementing low flows in the lower Fox River. The average discharge of the lower Fox River for the period 1898-1959, as measured at the gaging station at Rapide Croche Dam, was 2,687 mgd (million gallons per day). The longest consecutive period during which the discharge averaged less than 500 mgd was 80 days. The average discharge can be expected to fall below 700 mgd about once every 5 years for a 7-day period. In 1959, the average withdrawal of water from the Fox River was about 62 mgd. The water in the river is of the calcium magnesium bicarbonate type and is hard. The small streams in the area are utilized chiefly for stock watering; some of the water, however, is used for irrigation. The water in the small streams is more highly mineralized than the water in the Fox River and is very hard. Large quantities of water are available from Green Bay, but the disposal of industrial waste into the bay has restricted the use of the water. The major withdrawal is for condenser cooling, and, in 1959, it averaged about 415 mgd. The water from Green Bay is moderately hard but is of better chemical quality than the water from the Fox River and the small streams in the area. The only withdrawals of water from Lake Michigan for use in the Green Bay area are made by the city of Green Bay. In 1959, these withdrawals averaged 7.8 mgd. The lower Fox River is not subject to extremes of flow owing to the dampening effect of the Lake Winnebago pool and the regulation of flow at Menasha Dam. Cloudbursts over the lower Fox River valley below Menasha Dam, however, have occasionally caused extremely high water, as in 1922, when the discharge at the mouth of the Fox River was estimated to be about 50,000 mgd. Daily discharges greater than about 13,000 mgd occurred only 7 times in the period 1918-59. The 50-year flood of 15,500 mgd represents an average runoff of less than 2.6 mgd per square mile of drainage area, a relatively low runoff for a 50-year flood in Wisconsin. The sandstone aquifer is the principal source of ground water in the Green Bay area and furnishes water for public supply and industrial use. This aquifer includes rocks of Late Cambrian age, and the Prairie du Chien group and St. Peter sandstone of Ordovician age; it ranges in thickness from 550 to 640 feet. Ground water is found in openings along fractures and bedding planes and in the interstices between sand grains. The sandstone aquifer can support additional development of large supplies of ground water. Wells can be developed in most of the area that will yield 500 gpm (gallons per minute) or more, provided they are properly spaced and penetrate the entire thickness of the aquifer. It is estimated that the perennial yield of the sandstone in the Green Bay area could be at least 30 mgd if the aquifer is properly developed; only 5.4 mgd was withdrawn in 1959. The water from this sandstone aquifer is of the calcium magnesium bicarbonate type, is very hard, and, at a few places, contains objectionable amounts of iron. The Niagara dolomite, potentially a source of moderate to large quantities of water in the eastern part of the area, probably will yield 500 gpm or more to wells. In 1959, the average withdrawal of water for all uses was estimated at 495 mgd, of which 98.2 percent was from surface-water sources and 1.8 percent was from wells. About 485 mgd of water was withdrawn for industrial use, 6 mgd for public supply, and 4 mgd for rural use. The industrial use of water averaged 441 mgd for condenser cooling, 38 mgd fot processing by the paper industry, and 6 mgd for other industrial uses. The city of Green Bay used 7.8 mgd of water from Lake Michigan; other public supplies in the area used 2.6 mgd from wells. Of the withdrawals of water for rural use, about 75 percent was from wells and about 25 percent was from streams. The discharge of wastes into the lower Fox River and its tributary streams has altered the quality of the natural water. The wastes consist chiefly of treated municipal sewage and treated and untreated wastes from the paper industry, rendering plants, a sugar mill, and other industries. The industrial waste makes up about 90 percent of the oxygen-demand loading in the lower Fox River, and treated municipal sewage accounts for about 10 percent. The dissolved-oxygen concentration of water in the lower Fox River decreases rapidly in the vicinity of Green Bay during the summer when the river water is warm. If the periods when the river water is warmest, generally during July and early August, were to coincide with periods of lowest annual streamflow, generally in late August, the river would be unable to assimilate the loading of decomposable organic matter. In an emergency, industrial and public supply wells could supply at least 6 mgd for a sustained period and probably as much as 10 mgd for a period of several days. Six of the wells that formerly supplied the city of Green Bay are maintained in operating condition and could furnish about the same quantity of water as the industrial and other public supply wells. Small streams in the area would be supplemental sources of water, and the water in the Fox River and Green Bay is easily accessible.

Wisconsin↗
USGS1963

Methods of collecting and interpreting ground-water data

Because ground water is hidden from view, ancient man could only theorize as to its sources of replenishment and its behavior. His theories held sway until the latter part of the 17th century, which marked the first experimental work to determine the source and movement of ground water. Thus founded, the science of ground-water hydrology grew slowly and not until the 19th century is there substantial evidence of conclusions having been based on observational data. The 20th century has witnessed tremendous advances in the science in the methods of field investigation and interpretation of collected data, in the methods of determining the hydrologic characteristics of water-bearing material, and in the methods of inventorying ground-water supplies. Now, as is true of many other disciplines, the science of ground-water hydrology is characterized by frequent advancement of new ideas and techniques, refinement of old techniques, and an increasing wealth of data awaiting interpretation. So that its widely scattered staff of professional hydrologists could keep abreast of new ideas and advances in the techniques of groundwater investigation, it has been the practice in the U.S. Geological Survey to distribute such information for immediate internal use. As the methods become better established and developed, they are described in formal publications. Six papers pertaining to widely different phases of ground-water investigation comprise this particular contribution. For the sake of clarity and conformity, the original papers have been revised and edited by the compiler.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1906

Quality of water in the upper Ohio River basin and at Erie, Pennsylvania

This paper discusses the quality of water on the most important tributaries of Ohio River in Pennsylvania, New York, West Virginia, and Maryland, and the nature of the water supply at Erie, Pa. The amount and character of the pollution is described and the results of drinking contaminated water as shown by typhoid statistics are indicated. The conditions on the tributaries of Ohio River in Ohio are discussed in Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 79, United States Geological Survey, pages 129-187. The water supplies and sewerage of small towns high up toward the head of a large drainage system do not in many cases receive the attention they should. Epidemics of a waterborne disease which affect large municipalities near the mouth of the river and therefore attract attention must necessarily have their origin in the pollution of the watershed above. It is evident, therefore, that adequate sanitation of the small towns and a water supply as carefully guarded as that of a large city would prevent disease at its very source and be far less expensive than the costly battles which are waged against epidemics in huge centers of population after disease has broken out. Typhoid fever statistics for small towns in this section are seldom available and are more or less unreliable at best. The few figures given show the existence of virulent typhoid fever in most towns of the drainage areas in certain years, and as these towns drain into the streams the liability ofthe water to infection is evident. The significance of typhoid fever death rates will be better understood from the statistics presented below, which have been collated from a number of cities having excellent water supplies.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1979

Arctic stream processes--an annotated bibliography

This bibliography selectively summarizes investigations to date (1978) dealing with the physical processes of streams in the Arctic. The specialized annotations include aspects of stream processes described in subordinate parts of general papers on the arctic environment and therefore not evident in author-abstract bibliographies. Foreign contributions--Canadian, Scandinavian, and Russian--are summarized, in the case of Russian literature primarily by means of papers in translation journals. Until 1970 the role of streams in development of the arctic landscape was commonly considered subordinate to that of glacial and frost-related processes. This conclusion changed, however, with the findings of the many new studies begun in response to oil and gas discoveries in the late 1960's. The conclusions of these studies, made to provide both the engineering data for resource development and the information to assess the impacts of that development, were in general agreement that stream processes throughout most of the Arctic were significantly more important than previously had been thought.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1998

Ground-water-quality assessment of the Central Oklahoma aquifer, Oklahoma: Results of investigations

This is a collection of five papers intended to summarize the results of an assessment of the ground-water quality of the Central Oklahoma Aquifer. The papers include a summary of investigations, the diagenetic history of Permian rocks in the aquifer, a geochemical characterization of solid-phase materials, a summary of geochemical and geohydrologic investigations of the Central Oklahoma Aquifer, and a summary on naturally occurring trace substances that contaminated many wells completed in the aquifer.

Oklahoma↗
USGS1911

Ground water in Juab, Millard, and Iron Counties, Utah

Location and extent of area - Juab, Millard, and Iron counties lie in western Utah, and, with the exception of a small part of Iron County, are entirely within the Great Basin. (See fig. 1.) They comprise about 13,650 square miles, of which approximately 3,500 belong to Juab, 6,775 to Millard, and 3,375 to Iron County. Beaver County, which lies between Millard and Iron counties, is not discussed in this paper because its water resources have been described by W. T. Lee, of the United States Geological Survey, in Water-Supply Paper 217. Purpose of investigation - The investigation was begun in the summer of 1908, under cooperative agreement between the Director of the United States Geological Survey and Caleb Tanner, State engineer of Utah, the object of the work being to obtain and disseminate information which should lead to a greater utilization of the ground-water supplies. The agricultural development of an arid section, such as this, is primarily dependent on the amount of water available. Large tracts of fertile soil remain idle year after year for lack of water for irrigation, while much water that falls as rain and snow sinks into the ground, saturates the porous materials underlying the valleys and deserts, and eventually reappears at the surface in low alkali flats, where it is dissipated by evaporation without producing useful vegetation. If the water thus lost can be applied to fertile soil it will substantially increase the agricultural yield of the region. An urgent demand for information in regard to ground-water prospects has been created in recent years by the adoption of dry farming methods in localities where water is not readily obtained. The water required for culinary purposes and for supplying the horses and traction engines used in tilling the soil on some of the dry farms is at present hauled long distances. In most of the arid parts of this region watering places of any sort are so scarce that certain sections are accessible for grazing only in the winter when sheep will depend on snow for their water supply. In some of these sections an intelligent search would probably discover ground-water supplies which would increase greatly the value of the range.

Utah↗
USGS1915

Stream-gaging stations and publications relating to water sources, 1885-1913; Part IX: Colorado River basin

Investigation of water resources by the United States Geological Survey has consisted in large part of measurements of the volume of flow of streams and studies of the conditions affecting that flow, but it has comprised also investigation of such closely allied subjects as irrigation, water storage, water powers, underground waters, and quality of waters. Most of the results of these investigations have been published in the series of water-supply papers, but some have appeared in the monographs, bulletins, professional papers, and annual reports.

Colorado River basin↗
USGS1927

Large springs in the United States

What are the largest springs in the United States, how much water do they discharge, and what geologic conditions produce them are questions of much popular interest and considerable scientific and economic importance. Yet the information in regard to large springs has been so widely scattered and so difficult to interpret that most people have only very vague notions on the subject. The present paper is in a sense a by-product of a more comprehensive investigation of the origin, discharge, and quantity of ground water in the United States. It has, however, required, extensive search for data and critical analysis of the data that were obtained. The task would have been virtually impossible except for the hearty cooperation of the district engineers and other members of the water- resources branch of the Geological Survey, who are really coauthors of this paper. I wish to acknowledge especially the help of Kirk Bryan, G. C. Stevens, W. E. Hall, W. E. King, E. L. Williams, H. C. Beckman, C. E. Ellsworth, C. E. McCashin, C. G. Paulsen, W. G. Hoyt, H. T. Stearns, H. D. McGlashan, R. C. Briggs, F. F. Henshaw, W. A. Lamb, G. M. Hall, E. C. LaRue, and A. B. Purton

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1929

Geology and ground-water resources of North Dakota, with a discussion of the chemical character of the water

Water is the most valuable of the mineral resources. The study of ground waters is therefore clearly within the field of economic geology and constitutes an important part of the work of the geological surveys, both State and national, as defined by law. In the spring of 1911 the investigation of the ground waters of North Dakota was begun by the North Dakota Geological Survey, and the work was assigned to the author of this paper. During each of the three summers 1911, 1912, and 1913 several weeks were devoted by the author to the field work of a general survey. A report on the ground waters of the State was then prepared by him and was transmitted by the director of the North Dakota Geological Survey to the State printing commission for publication. However, owing to lack of available funds the report was not published. A portion of the summer of 1914 was given to a study of artesian conditions in the Souris River Basin. Since that time considerable work has been done in connection with detailed surveys made for a number of cities and villages in an effort to obtain the best available supply of water for public use. During the summer of 1920 arrangements were made by the United States Geological Survey with the North Dakota Geological Survey whereby the author completed the work as fully as possible by correspondence and brought the report up to date. In the spring of 1921 samples of water from 196 sources were collected by the author and J. H. Buchanan and were sent to the United States Geological Survey for analysis. Most of these samples were analyzed by H. B. Riffenburg, who has used the analyses for a description of the chemical character of ground waters in the State. In addition to the analyses of samples collected in connection with the preparation of this report, over 700 partial analyses from different sources were examined. These analyses are not given in this paper, because the location of many of the wells was not stated definitely, and most of the analyses were incomplete. They were useful, however, in confirming the conclusions based on the analyses that are printed, particularly for counties where only a few samples were collected for this report.

North Dakota↗
USGS2008

Scientific objectives of the Gulf of Mexico gas hydrate JIP leg II drilling

The Gulf of Mexico Methane Hydrate Joint Industry Project (JIP) has been performing research on marine gas hydrates since 2001 and is sponsored by both the JIP members and the U.S. Department of Energy. In 2005, the JIP drilled the Atwater Valley and Keathley Canyon exploration blocks in the Gulf of Mexico to acquire downhole logs and recover cores in silt- and clay-dominated sediments interpreted to contain gas hydrate based on analysis of existing 3-D seismic data prior to drilling. The new 2007-2009 phase of logging and coring, which is described in this paper, will concentrate on gas hydrate-bearing sands in the Alaminos Canyon, Green Canyon, and Walker Ridge protraction areas. Locations were selected to target higher permeability, coarser-grained lithologies (e.g., sands) that have the potential for hosting high saturations of gas hydrate and to assist the U.S. Minerals Management Service with its assessment of gas hydrate resources in the Gulf of Mexico. This paper discusses the scientific objectives for drilling during the upcoming campaign and presents the results from analyzing existing seismic and well log data as part of the site selection process. Alaminos Canyon 818 has the most complete data set of the selected blocks, with both seismic data and comprehensive downhole log data consistent with the occurrence of gas hydrate-bearing sands. Preliminary analyses suggest that the Frio sandstone just above the base of the gas hydrate stability zone may have up to 80% of the available sediment pore space occupied by gas hydrate. The proposed sites in the Green Canyon and Walker Ridge areas are also interpreted to have gas hydrate-bearing sands near the base of the gas hydrate stability zone, but the choice of specific drill sites is not yet complete. The Green Canyon site coincides with a 4-way closure within a Pleistocene sand unit in an area of strong gas flux just south of the Sigsbee Escarpment. The Walker Ridge site is characterized by a sand-prone sedimentary section that rises stratigraphically across the base of the gas hydrate stability zone and that has seismic indicators of gas hydrate.

Conference Paper↗
USGS2016

Geometric quality assessment of lidar data based on swath overlap

This paper provides guidelines on quantifying the relative horizontal and vertical errors observed between conjugate features in the overlapping regions of lidar data. The quantification of these errors is important because their presence quantifies the geometric quality of the data. A data set can be said to have good geometric quality if measurements of identical features, regardless of their position or orientation, yield identical results. Good geometric quality indicates that the data are produced using sensor models that are working as they are mathematically designed, and data acquisition processes are not introducing any unforeseen distortion in the data. High geometric quality also leads to high geolocation accuracy of the data when the data acquisition process includes coupling the sensor with geopositioning systems. Current specifications (e.g. Heidemann 2014) do not provide adequate means to quantitatively measure these errors, even though they are required to be reported. Current accuracy measurement and reporting practices followed in the industry and as recommended by data specification documents also potentially underestimate the inter-swath errors, including the presence of systematic errors in lidar data. Hence they pose a risk to the user in terms of data acceptance (i.e. a higher potential for Type II error indicating risk of accepting potentially unsuitable data). For example, if the overlap area is too small or if the sampled locations are close to the center of overlap, or if the errors are sampled in flat regions when there are residual pitch errors in the data, the resultant Root Mean Square Differences (RMSD) can still be small. To avoid this, the following are suggested to be used as criteria for defining the inter-swath quality of data: a) Median Discrepancy Angle b) Mean and RMSD of Horizontal Errors using DQM measured on sloping surfaces c) RMSD for sampled locations from flat areas (defined as areas with less than 5 degrees of slope) It is suggested that 4000-5000 points are uniformly sampled in the overlapping regions of the point cloud, and depending on the surface roughness, to measure the discrepancy between swaths. Care must be taken to sample only areas of single return points only. Point-to-Plane distance based data quality measures are determined for each sample point. These measurements are used to determine the above mentioned parameters. This paper details the measurements and analysis of measurements required to determine these metrics, i.e. Discrepancy Angle, Mean and RMSD of errors in flat regions and horizontal errors obtained using measurements extracted from sloping regions (slope greater than 10 degrees). The research is a result of an ad-hoc joint working group of the US Geological Survey and the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS) Airborne Lidar Committee.

Conference Paper↗
USGS1969

Duck viral enteritis (duck plague) in North American Waterfowl

Duck Viral Enteritis (DVE) was first recognized in North America in January 1967, when an outbreak occurred in a commercial flock of white Pekin ducks in Suffolk County, Long Island, New York (Leibovitz and Hwang, 1968b). Originally described as a disease of domestic ducks in the Netherlands, DVE has since been reported from India and Belgium. it is also believed to have occurred in China and France (Jansen, 1968). This paper briefly reviews the status of DVE among wild waterfowl in North America and describes some of the characteristic lesions associated with this disease. The paper also mentions some of the work which has been undertaken to learn more about the status of DVE in North America.

Conference Paper↗
USGS1979

Organochlorine poisoning of herons

Over a period of years interested individuals have submitted many dead or moribund herons of various species to our laboratory to learn whether the birds had been affected by diseases or organochlorine poisoning. Residue concentrations in carcasses of birds and mammals are considered the best measure of sublethal exposure, whereas residues in brains are best to use for diagnosing death by most organochlorine chemicals (see Heinz et al. 1979 for review). Residue concentrations in brains that are diagnostic of organochlorine poisoning for birds have been determined in the laboratory for DDT and its metabolites (L.F. Stickel et al. 1966; W.H. Stickel et al. 1970; Stickel and Stickel 1970; W.H. Stickel, pers. comm.); dieldrin (W.H. Stickel et al. 1969; W.H. Stickel, pers. comm.); heptachlor, chlordane, and oxychlordane (L.F. Stickel et al. 1979; W.H. Stickel, pers. comm.); endrin (W.H. Stickel et al. 1979); Aroclor 1254 (W.H. Stickel 1975; W.H. Stickel, pers. comm.); and mirex (W.H. Stickel et al. 1973). This subject is discussed in further detail by Heinz et al. (1979). The purpose of the present paper is to document the occurrence and concentration of organochlorine residues in the brains of herons from various areas in the United States. By comparing these residue concentrations with laboratory-determined diagnostic lethal levels, we conclude that some herons were killed by organochlorine poisoning; others were at least seriously endangered by the residues they carried. Complete results of carcass analyses for these and other herons, as well as further details on residues in brains, will be reported elsewhere (H.M. Ohlendorf, D.M. Swineford, and L.N. Locke, unpublished manuscript). Overall, we analyzed carcasses or brains of more than 70 herons found dead or moribund and 36 others taken in planned collections. Residue levels in carcasses of many herons were not high enough to warrant analysis of brains. In the present paper we compare carcass and brain residues of dieldrin in 23 herons of which both carcass and brain were analyzed.

Alabama, Michigan, Vermont↗
USGS1988

Power formula for open-channel flow resistance

This paper evaluates various power formulas for flow resistance in open channels. Unlike the logarithmic resistance equation that can be theoretically derived either from Prandtl's mixing-length hypothesis or von Karman's similarity hypothesis, the power formula has long had an appearance of empiricism. Nevertheless, the simplicity in the form of the power formula has made it popular among the many possible forms of flow resistance formulas. This paper reexamines the concept and rationale of the power formulation, thereby addressing some critical issues in the modeling of flow resistance.

Conference Paper↗