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At least 541 records · Page 30Linked to original sources
USGS2003

Review of Selected References and Data sets on Ambient Ground- and Surface-Water Quality in the Metedeconk River, Toms River, and Kettle Creek Basins, New Jersey, 1980-2001

Surface water and ground water from unconfined aquifers are the primary sources of drinking water for much of the population, about 391,000, in the Metedeconk River, Toms River, and Kettle Creek watersheds in the New Jersey Coastal Plain. The quality of these sources of drinking water is a concern because they are vulnerable to contamination. Indications of the occurrence, distribution, and likely sources and transport mechanisms of certain contaminants were obtained from 48 selected reports and 2 selected data sets on water quality in or near the watersheds (1980-2001). These indications are described and briefly summarized in this report. The findings of studies on ground-water quality indicate that shallow ground water within the study area generally meets primary drinking-water standards, with notable exceptions. Volatile organic compounds, mercury, arsenic, radionuclides, nitrate, and coliform bacteria have been detected in shallow ground water in some areas at levels that exceed Federal and State drinking-water standards. For example, results of analyses of untreated samples collected from more than 13,000 private wells during 1983-99 indicated that concentrations of volatile organic compounds in samples from 7.3 percent of the wells exceeded at least 1 of 11 drinking-water standards, according to records maintained by the Ocean County Health Department. In cases of exceedances, however, water treatment, well replacement, and (or) retesting assured that applicable drinking-water standards were being met at the tap. Reported concentrations of the pesticide chlordane in some areas exceeded the drinking-water standard; few data are available on the occurrence of other pesticides. Studies of nearby areas, however, indicate that pesticide concentrations generally could be expected to be below drinking-water standards. The combination of low pH and low dissolved solids in many areas results in shallow ground water that is highly corrosive and, if untreated, able to leach trace elements and release asbestos fibers from plumbing materials. Reported concentrations of nitrate, volatile organic compounds, trace elements, and pesticides in samples from the monitored mainstem and tributary streams within the study area generally are below maximum contaminant levels for drinking water or below detection limits. Results of studies in other areas indicate that pesticide concentrations in surface water could be considerably higher during high flows soon after the application of pesticides to crops than during low flows. Fecal coliform bacteria counts in streams vary considerably. Concentrations or counts of these classes of surface-water-quality constituents likely are functions of the intensity and type of upstream development. Results of limited monitoring for radionuclide concentrations reported by the Brick Township Municipal Utilities Authority of the Metedeconk River indicate that radionuclide concentrations or activities do not exceed maximum contaminant levels for drinking water. As a consequence of organic matter in surface water, the formati ultraviolet absorbance in samples from the Metedeconk River and the Toms River exceeded the alternative compliance criteria for source water (2.0 milligrams per liter for total organic carbon and 0.02 absorbance units-liters per milligram-centimeter for specific ultraviolet absorbance) with respect to treatment requirements for preventing elevated concentrations of disinfection by-products in treated water. Water-quality and treatment issues associated with use of ground and surface water for potable supply in the study area are related to human activities and naturally occurring factors. Additional monitoring and analysis of ground and surface water would be needed to determine conclusively the occurrence and distribution of some contaminants and the relative importance of various potential contaminant sources, transport and attenuation mechanisms, and transport pathways.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗
USGS1993

Geomorphic and hydraulic assessment of the Bear River in and near Evanston, Wyoming

Geomorphic and hydraulic characteristics of the Bear River in and near Evanston, Wyoming, were assessed to assist planners in stabilizing the river channel. Present-day channel instability is the result of both human-made and natural factors. The primary factor is channelization of the river in Evanston, where several meander loops were cut off artificially during early development of the city. Other contributing factors include channel-width constrictions, bank stabilization, isolated bend cutoffs upstream from the city, and flooding in 1983 and 1984. A geomorphic analysis of bankfull-channel pattern, based on four aerial photographs taken during 1946-86, quantified geomorphic properties (reach sinuosity, bend sinuosity, bend radius of curvature, and bed length) that are characteristic of the study reach. The reach sinuosity of reach 2 (the channelized reach in Evanston) was 1.18 in 1986 and remained about the same throughout the period (1946-86). The reach sinuosity of reach 2 prior to channelization was substantially larger, about 2.3 as determined from maps prepared before 1946. Hydraulic analysis of the present-day channel (surveyed 1981-87) using a one-dimensional water-surface-profile computer model identified a bankfull discharge for the study reach of 3,600 cu ft/sec. A comparison of bankfull hydraulic properties for reaches 1, 2, and 3 indicated that the effects in reach 2 of channelization and channel-width constriction--increased slope, faster velocities, and greater hydraulic radii. The present-day channel slope in reach 2 is 0.00518 ft/ft, whereas a more stable slope would be between 0.00431 ft/ft (present-day slope in reach 1) and 0.00486 ft/ft (present-day slope in reach 3).

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗
USGS1997

Water-quality assessment of the Rio Grande Valley, Colorado, New Mexico and Texas: Organic compounds and trace elements in bed sediment and fish tissue, 1992-93

The occurrence and distribution of contaminants in aquatic systems are major components of the National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program. Bed-sediment samples were collected at 18 sites in the Rio Grande Valley study unit between September 1992 and March 1993 to characterize the geographic distribution of organic compounds, including chlorinated insecticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's), and other chlorinated hydrocarbons, and also trace elements. Two-millimeter-size- fraction sediment was analyzed for organic compounds and less than 63-micron-size-fraction sediment was analyzed for trace elements. Concentrations of p,p'-DDE were detected in 33 percent of the bed-sediment samples. With the exception of DDT-related compounds, no other organochlorine insecticides or polychlorinated biphenyls were detected in samples of bed sediment. Whole-body fish samples were collected at 11 of the bed- sediment sites and analyzed for organic compounds. Organic compounds were reported more frequently in samples of fish, and more types of organic compounds were found in whole-body fish samples than in bed-sediment samples. Concentrations of p,p'-DDE were detected in 91 percent of whole-body fish samples. Polychlorinated biphenyls, cis-chlordane, trans-chlordane, trans- nonachlor, and hexachlorobenzene were other organic compounds detected in whole-body samples of fish from at least one site. Because of the extent of mineralized areas in the Rio Grande Basin arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, selenium, and zinc concentrations in bed-sediment samples could represent natural conditions at most sites. However, a combination of natural conditions and human activities appears to be associated with elevated trace-element concentrations in the bed-sediment sample from the site Rio Grande near Creede, Colorado, because this sample exceeded the background trace-element concentrations calculated for this study. Fish-liver samples were collected at 12 of the bed-sediment sites and analyzed for trace elements. Certain trace elements were detected at higher concentrations in fish-liver samples than in bed-sediment samples from the same site. Both bed-sediment and fish-tissue samples are necessary for a complete environmental assessment of the occurrence and distribution of trace elements.

Colorado, New Mexico, Texas↗
USGS1997

Summary of information on aquatic biota and their habitats in the Willamette Basin, Oregon, through 1995

Available information on aquatic biota of the Willamette Basin was reviewed and summarized to describe current and historical conditions as part of the U.S. Geological Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment Program. Biological parameters emphasized include the status, distribution, and trends of aquatic biota, particularly algae, macroinvertebrates, and fish; the condition of aquatic and riparian habitat in which these biota reside; and the response of these biota to natural and human-associated impacts, including the level, type, and effect of contaminants. Considerable data are available on aquatic biota in the Willamette Basin, although the information is highly uneven relative to taxa and spatial scope. Extensive information exists for high-profile taxa, such as salmonid fishes, but less information is available for macroinvertebrates, and relatively little data exist for algae. Additionally, some areas such as the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest and the main stem Willamette River have been extensively studied, whereas data are limited for many other areas. The basin supports a diverse aquatic macroinvertebrate fauna. Available data indicate a relatively high diversity of taxa and a high richness of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera (EPT) taxa in the upper reaches of the basin. In the lower main stem reaches, macroinvertebrate assemblages are dominated by pollution tolerant organisms and those adapted to low dissolved oxygen levels. Most of the limited data on algae are from sampling in the main stem Willamette River. Diatoms and blue-green algae are the dominant algal forms. Approximately 61 fish species occur in the basin, although nearly half are introduced. Species richness and distribution are highly correlated with elevation, stream gradient, and water temperature. High elevation, cold water, mountain streams are characterized by a few species of salmonids, sculpins, suckers, and whitefish. Low elevation, main stem reaches of major rivers and streams are dominated by warm water species, such as bass, catfish, and several species in the pan fish group. The only species of fish listed as threatened or endangered is the Oregon chub (Oregonichthys crameri). The effect of an expanding human presence in the Willamette Basin has substantially altered aquatic and riparian habitats, and the biota that use or reside in these habitats. Construction of dams, channelization and bank stabilization of rivers, species introductions, supplementations of fisheries through aquaculture, timber harvesting, agricultural activities, and urbanization have contributed to changes in aquatic habitats and biota from historical conditions. Aquatic toxicological investigations in the basin have focused primarily on fish. These studies have addressed chlorinated pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins and furans, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and trace elements in aquatic tissue, as well as fish health assessments, skeletal abnormalities, and aquatic toxicological responses. Several pesticides exceeded U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and State water-quality criteria for the protection of aquatic life. Elevated PCB, dioxin, and furan concentrations were associated with point sources, such as pulp and paper mills. Elevated concentrations of mercury in aquatic tissue were associated with several reservoirs. Fish health assessments and skeletal abnormality studies detected high levels of abnormalities in fish from the main stem Willamette River. Few investigations have examined aquatic toxicological responses, such as enzyme induction assays, growth assays, and biomarker studies.

Oregon↗
USGS1999

Geomorphic effects of overflow dams on the lower Neosho River, Kansas

The purpose of this report is to characterize the geomorphic (channel-changing) effects of overflow dams on the lower Neosho River channel in southeastern Kansas. Specifically, the report describes the types, upstream and downstream extents, and stability of the geomorphic effects in relation to site-specific, human-caused and natural conditions that may affect the channel’s response to the overflow dams.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗
USGS1999

Occurrence and distribution of fish species in the Great and Little Miami River basins, Ohio and Indiana, pre-1900 to 1998

Historically, 133 fish species representing 25 families have been documented in the Great and Little Miami River Basins. Of these, 132 species have been reported in the basins since 1901, 123 since 1955, 117 since 1980, and 113 post-1990. Natural processes and human activities have both been shown to be major factors in the alteration of fish-community structure and the decrease in species diversity. In the late 1800's, dam construction and the removal of riparian zones restricted fish migration and altered habitat. Industrialization and urbanization increased considerably in the 1900's, further degrading stream habitat and water quality. Species requiring riffles and clean, hard stream bottoms were the most adversely affected. The use of agricultural and industrial chemicals prompted fish-consumption advisories and an increase in studies reporting the occurrence of external fish anomalies. Over the last 20 years, water quality has improved in part because of the upgrading of wastewater-treatment facilities; and, as a result, many streams of the Great and Little Miami River Basins generally meet or exceed existing water-quality standards. Although significant improvements have occurred in the basins, continued efforts to improve water quality and restore the physical habitat of streams will be necessary to increase fish abundance and biodiversity.

Indiana, Ohio↗
USGS2006

Permanent 'phase shifts' or reversible declines in coral cover? Lack of recovery of two coral reefs in St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands

Caribbean coral reefs have changed dramatically in the last 3 to 4 decades, with significant loss of coral cover and increases in algae. Here we present trends in benthic cover from 1989 to 2003 at 2 reefs (Lameshur Reef and Newfound Reef) off St. John, US Virgin Islands (USVI). Coral cover has declined in the fore-reef zones at both sites, and no recovery is evident. At Lameshur Reef, Hurricane Hugo (1989) caused significant physical damage and loss of coral. We suggest that macroalgae rapidly colonized new substrate made available by this storm and have hindered or prevented growth of adult corals, as well as settlement and survival of new coral recruits. Overfishing of herbivorous fishes in the USVI and loss of shelter for these fishes because of major storms has presumably reduced the levels of herbivory that formerly controlled algal abundance. Coral cover declined at Newfound Reef from 1999 to 2000, most likely because of coral diseases. The trends that we have documented, loss of coral followed by no evidence of recovery, appear similar to findings from other studies in the Caribbean. We need to focus on functional shifts in the resilience of coral reefs that result in their inability to recover from natural and human-caused stressors.

U.S. Virgin Islands↗
USGS2023

Sediment sources and connectivity linked to hydrologic pathways and geomorphic processes: A conceptual model to specify sediment sources and pathways through space and time

Sediment connectivity is a conceptualization for the transfer and storage of sediment among different geomorphic compartments across upland landscapes and channel networks. Sediment connectivity and dysconnectivity are linked to the water cycle and hydrologic systems with the associated multiscale interactions with climate, soil, topography, ecology, and landuse/landcover under natural variability and human intervention. We review current sediment connectivity and modeling approaches evaluating and quantifying water and sediment transfer in catchment systems. Many studies highlight the interaction between sediment and water in defining landscape connectivity, but many efforts to quantify and/or simulate sediment connectivity rely on the topographic/structural controls on sediment erosion and delivery. More recent modeling efforts integrate functional and structural connectivity to capture hydrologic properties influencing sediment delivery. Though the recent modeling development is encouraging, a comprehensive sediment connectivity framework, which integrates geomorphic and hydrologic processes across spatiotemporal scales, has not yet been accomplished. Such an effort requires understanding the hydrologic and geomorphic processes that control sediment source, storage, and transport at different spatiotemporal scales and across various geophysical conditions. We propose a path for developing this new understanding through an integrated hydrologic and sediment connectivity conceptual model that broadly categorizes dominant processes and patterns relevant to understanding sediment flux dynamics. The conceptual model describes hydrologic–sediment connectivity regimes through spatial-temporal feedback between hydrologic processes and geomorphic drivers. We propose that in combining hydrologic and sediment connectivity into a single conceptual model, patterns emerge such that catchments will exist in a single characteristic behavior at a particular instance, which would shift with space and time, and with landscape disturbances. Using the conceptual model as a “thinking” tool, we extract case studies from a multidisciplinary literature review—from hydrology, geomorphology, biogeochemistry, and watershed modeling to remote-sensing technology—that correspond to each of the dominant hydrologic–sediment connectivity regimes. Sediment and water interactions in real-world examples through various observational and modeling techniques illustrate the advancements in the spatial and temporal scales of landscape connectivity observations and simulations. The conceptual model and case studies provide a foundation for advancing the understanding and predictive capability of watershed sediment processes at multiple spatiotemporal scales. Plain language summary: Soil erosion and movement across the landscape are closely linked to rain events and flow pathways. Landscape connectivity is a way to consider how soil erosion from different parts of the landscape is connected to the streams. We explore where soil erosion occurs and how eroded soil moves across the landscape through the interaction with rainfall and drainage. The comprehensive understanding of sediment connectivity and its dependence on rainfall characteristics and watershed hydrology may help to inform the effective distribution of conservation funds and management actions to address water pollution from excess sediment.

Frontiers in Water↗
USGS2023

Using multiscale environmental and spatial analyses to understand natural and anthropogenic influence on fish communities in four Canadian rivers

Science-based conservation of riverine fishes can be best targeted with specific information about spatial-ecological controls on the community, including anthropogenic stressors. Because anthropogenic stressors can originate at multiple spatial scales, we investigated the influence of natural and anthropogenic variables summarized within the reach, valley, and catchment on fish community composition along four river mainstems in Ontario, Canada. We used Redundancy Analyses (RDA) to explore models with multi- and single-scale variables on fish community composition. We used partial RDAs to differentiate the relative effects of variable types in multiscale models and to determine if spatial variables explained additional variation in fish community composition. Catchment variables accounted for the majority of explained variation in fish community composition in three of the four rivers, but instream habitat variables accounted for considerable variability in fish community composition in the two rivers that are highly fragmented by dams or naturally occurring rapids. Natural and human-derived fragmentation in rivers may reduce the influence of catchment controls, disrupt longitudinal gradients, and increase the influence of local instream habitat. Environmental variables that explained fish distribution had longitudinal or patchy spatial pattern within rivers, but spatial variables representing impediments to fish dispersal and proximity to receiving waterbodies failed to explain additional variation in fish community composition.

Ontario↗
USGS2020

Double exposure and dynamic vulnerability: Assessing economic well-being, ecological change and the development of the oil and gas industry in coastal Louisiana

The oil and gas industry has been a powerful driver of economic change in coastal Louisiana for the latter half of the 20th century and into the 21st. Yet, the overall impact of the industry on the economic well-being of host communities is varied, both spatially and temporally. While the majority of Louisiana’s oil and gas production now occurs offshore, processing the extracted product is an energy-intensive undertaking requiring an expansive network of land-based infrastructure. Despite the positive economic aspects of this development, there are also potential negatives posed to coastal ecosystems and to communities located adjacent to oil and gas infrastructure. This research utilizes a double exposure framework to explore the relationship between oil and gas infrastructure development, fish and shellfish habitat, and economic well-being in Louisiana’s coastal zone from 1950 to 2010. The approach followed four main steps: (1) Developing a hazardousness of place model to identify areas of magnified risk due to the combined hazards of multiple potential exposure sites related to the extraction and processing of crude oil and natural gas; (2) developing a model of ecological functioning to measure the ability of aquatic habitat to support key fish and shellfish species; (3) utilizing an integrated community economic well-being index to assess change on a decadal timescale; and (4) analyzing selected oil-dependent communities to illustrate how change processes occurring in different energy sectors result in differential outcomes. The results suggest that, for many communities, the dependence on the oil and gas industry has increased economic well-being but also increased sensitivity to natural and human-induced changes, including fluctuating economic conditions, environmental stress, coastal habitat destruction, and increasing social and economic pressures.

Louisiana↗
USGS2007

The need for sustained and integrated high-resolution mapping of dynamic coastal environments

The coastal zone of the United States is a dynamic environment evolving in response to both natural processes and human activities. In order to protect coastal populations and resources, a detailed understanding of the physical setting and of the processes responsible for change is required. A sustained program of mapping coastal areas provides a means to establish baseline conditions, document change, and, in conjunction with models of physical processes, predict future behavior. Recent advances in mapping technology, including airborne lidars and hyperspectral imagers, allow for the rapid collection of high-resolution elevation data and land use information on a national scale. These rich data sets are critical to evaluating risk associated with coastal hazards, such as flooding during extreme storms. For example, coastal elevation data is a fundamental parameter in storm surge models that predict where flooding will occur, and land use maps serve as the foundation of assessments that identify the resources and populations that are most vulnerable. A comprehensive, national coastal mapping plan that is designed to collect, manage, and distribute these data, as well as to take advantage of recent progress in mapping technology, will provide a wealth of information for studying the processes of physical change, for determining areas vulnerable to coastal hazards, and for protecting and managing our coastal communities and resources.

Marine Technology Society Journal↗
USGS2025

Reviews and syntheses: Variable inundation across Earth's terrestrial ecosystems

The structure, function, and dynamics of Earth's terrestrial ecosystems are profoundly influenced by how often (frequency) and how long (duration) they are inundated with water. A diverse array of natural and human-engineered systems experience temporally variable inundation whereby they fluctuate between inundated and non-inundated states. Variable inundation spans extreme events to predictable sub-daily cycles. Variably inundated ecosystems (VIEs) include hillslopes, non-perennial streams, wetlands, floodplains, temporary ponds, tidal systems, storm-impacted coastal zones, and human-engineered systems. VIEs are diverse in terms of inundation regimes, water chemistry and flow velocity, soil and sediment properties, vegetation, and many other properties. The spatial and temporal scales of variable inundation are vast, ranging from sub-meter to whole landscapes and from sub-hourly to multi-decadal. The broad range of system types and scales makes it challenging to predict the hydrology, biogeochemistry, ecology, and physical evolution of VIEs. Despite all experiencing the loss and gain of an overlying water column, VIEs are rarely considered together in conceptual, theoretical, modeling, or measurement frameworks and approaches. Studying VIEs together has the potential to generate mechanistic understanding that is transferable across a much broader range of environmental conditions, relative to knowledge generated by studying any one VIE type. We postulate that enhanced transferability will be important for predicting changes in VIE function in response to global change. Here we aim to catalyze cross-VIE science that studies drivers and impacts of variable inundation across Earth's VIEs. To this end, we complement expert mini-reviews of eight major VIE systems with overviews of VIE-relevant methods and challenges associated with scale. We conclude with perspectives on how cross-VIE science can derive transferable understanding via unifying conceptual models in which the impacts of variable inundation are studied across multi-dimensional environmental space.

Biogeosciences↗
USGS2000

Spatial distribution of tropospheric ozone in western Washington, USA

We quantified the distribution of tropospheric ozone in topographically complex western Washington state, USA (total area a??6000 km2), using passive ozone samplers along nine river drainages to measure ozone exposure from near sea level to high-elevation mountain sites. Weekly average ozone concentrations were higher with increasing distance from the urban core and at higher elevations, increasing a mean of 1.3 ppbv per 100 m elevation gain for all mountain transects. Weekly average ozone concentrations were generally highest in Cascade Mountains drainages east and southeast of Seattle (maximum=55a??67 pbv) and in the Columbia River Gorge east of Portland (maximum=59 ppbv), and lowest in the western Olympic Peninsula (maximum=34 ppbv). Higher ozone concentrations in the Cascade Mountains and Columbia River locations downwind of large cities indicate that significant quantities of ozone and ozone precursors are being transported eastward toward rural wildland areas by prevailing westerly winds. In addition, temporal (week to week) variation in ozone distribution is synchronous within and between all drainages sampled, which indicates that there is regional coherence in air pollution detectable with weekly averages. These data provide insight on large-scale spatial variation of ozone distribution in western Washington, and will help regulatory agencies optimize future monitoring networks and identify locations where human health and natural resources could be at risk.

Environmental Pollution↗
USGS1991

Implications of accelerated sea-level rise on Louisiana coastal environments

Natural and human-induced processes have combined to produce high rates of relative sea-level rise and coastal land loss in Louisiana. This paper presents historical trends in sea-level rise and the implication of predicted accelerated rise scenarios on Louisiana's coastal environments. Mean eustatic sea-level in the Gulf of Mexico is 0.23 cm/yr. In Louisiana, relative sea-level rise, which combines eustacy and subsidence, averages from 0.50 cm/yr in the chenier plain to 1.0 cm/yr in the delta plain. Subsidence due to the compaction of Holocene sediments is believed to be the major component influencing these high rates of rise. Subsidence contributes up to 80% of the observed relative sea-level rise in coastal Louisiana. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) predicts the rate of sea-level rise to increase over the next century due to global climate change. If these predictions are accurate, a dramatic increase in the coastal land loss conditions in Louisiana can be expected.

Conference Paper↗
USGS2002

American lifelines alliance efforts to improve electric power transmission reliability

A study was performed on American Lifelines Alliance (ALA) efforts to improve electric power transmission reliability. ALA is a public-private partnership project, with the goal of reducing risks to lifelines from natural hazards and human threat events. The mechanism used by ALA for developing national guidelines for lifeline systems is dependent upon using existing Standards Developing Organizations (SDO) accredited by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as means to achieve national consensus.

Conference Paper↗
USGS2007

USGS: Science to understand and forecast change in coastal ecosystems

The multidisciplinary approach of the US Geological Survey (USGS), a principal science agency of the US Department of the Interior (DOI), to address the complex and cumulative impacts of human activities and natural events on the US coastal ecosystems has been considered remarkable for understanding and forecasting the changes. The USGS helps explain geologic, hydrologic, and biologic systems and their connectivity across landscapes and seascapes along the coastline. The USGS coastal science programs effectively address science and information to other scientists, managers, policy makers, and the public. The USGS provides scientific expertise, capabilities, and services to collaborative federal, regional, and state-led efforts, which are in line with the goals of Ocean Action Plan (OAP) and Ocean Research Priorities Plan (ORPP). The organization is a leader in understanding terrestrial and marine environmental hazards such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, and landslides and assessing and forecasting coastal impacts using various specialized visualization techniques.

Sea Technology↗
USGS2011

Don't forget about the Christchurch earthquake: Lessons learned from this disaster

In the aftermath of the devastating magnitude-9.0 earthquake and tsunami that struck the Tohoku region of Japan on March 11, attention quickly turned away from a much smaller, but also highly destructive earthquake that struck the city of Christchurch, New Zealand, just a few weeks earlier, on Feb. 22. Both events are stark reminders of human vulnerability to natural disasters and provide a harsh reality check: Even technologically advanced countries with modern building codes are not immune from earthquake disasters. The Christchurch earthquake carried an additional message: Urban devastation can be triggered even by moderate-sized earthquakes.

Christchurch↗