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USGS1999

Guidelines for proper care and use of wildlife in field research

Public attitudes towards animals continue to change over time. These changes apply to wildlife along with other species, and in recent years, attitudes have been increasingly oriented toward assuring that all species receive proper care whenever human interactions are involved. Guidance regarding the application of euthanasia is provided in the previous chapter. This chapter provides basic guidelines for the proper use of wildlife in field investigations. We believe this previously published information from The Wildlife Society is sufficiently important to include in this field manual. The Wildlife Society has been kind enough to grant permission for this reproduction. The scope of this chapter extends to all wildlife, and the application of this material extends beyond research to all wildlife investigations. This chapter is reproduced, with the addition of illustrations and minor modifications, as it appeared in Research and Management Techniques for Wildlife and Habitats (Bookhout, 1994), and, thus, it deviates from the format for the rest of Volume I.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Heartworm of swans and geese

Heartworm in swans and geese is caused by a filarial nematode or a roundworm of the superfamily Filarioidea which is transmitted to the bird by a biting louse. The nematode and the louse both are parasites. Sarconema eurycerca is the only one of several species of microfilaria or the first stage juvenile of the parasite found in the circulating blood of waterfowl that is known to be pathogenic or cause clinical disease.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Miscellaneous parasitic diseases

Free-ranging wild birds are afflicted with numerous other parasites that occasionally cause illness and death. Some of these parasites, such as two of the trematodes or flukes highlighted below, can cause major die-offs. This section about parasitic diseases concludes with descriptions of some additional parasites that field biologists may encounter in wild birds. This listing is by no means complete and it is intended only to increase awareness of the diversity of types of parasites that might be encountered during examinations of wild birds. One should not assume that the parasites found during the examination of bird carcasses caused their death. Because parasites of birds vary greatly in size from a protozoa of a few microns in length to tapeworms of several inches in length and because they can be found in virtually all tissues, body cavities and other locations within the bird, the observation of the parasites will depend on their visibility and the thoroughness of the examination. Therefore, it is generally beneficial to submit bird carcasses to qualified disease diagnostic laboratories to obtain evaluations of the significance of endoparasites or of ectoparasites. The methods that are used to preserve the carcass, tissues, or other specimens can enhance or compromise the ability of specialists to identify the parasite to species, and even to genera, in some instances. Therefore, whenever possible, it is best to contact the diagnostic laboratory that will receive the specimens and obtain instructions for collecting, preserving, and shipping field samples (See Chapters 2 and 3).

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Chlamydiosis

Chlamydiosis refers to an infection with organisms of the genus Chlamydia sp., which are bacteria that live within animal cells. Chlamydia psittaci is the species generally associated with this disease in birds. The severity of the disease differs by the strain of C. psittaci and the susceptibility of different species of birds. As a result, chlamydiosis may range from an inapparent infection to a severe disease with high mortality. The organism is excreted in the feces and nasal discharges of infected birds and can remain infective for several months. Infection commonly occurs from inhaling the bacteria in airborne particles from feces or respiratory exudates. Because of the organism’s resistance to drying, infected bird feces at roosts are especially hazardous.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Polychlorinated biphenyls

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are industrial compounds with multiple industrial and commercial uses (Table 41.1). PCBs are chemically inert and stable when heated. These properties contribute greatly to PCBs having become environmental contaminants. The chemical inertness and heat stability properties that make PCBs desirable for industry also protect them from destruction when the products in which they are used are discarded. These same properties also enable PCB residues to persist in the environment for long periods of time and to be transported worldwide when contaminated particulate matter travels through waters, precipitation, wind, and other physical forces. PCBs have a physical structure similar to DDT, and, like DDT, they are classified as aromatic hydrocarbons which contain one or more benzene rings. The presence of chlorine results in DDT, PCBs, and other compounds with similar structures commonly being referred to as chlorinated hydrocarbons. The toxicity of these compounds is associated with the amount of chlorine they contain. The trade name of Aroclor® for PCBs that were produced by a manufacturer in the United States contains a numerical designation that specifies the amount of chlorine present in a particular formulation. For example, Aroclor® 1221 contains 21 percent chlorine while Aroclor® 1254 contains 54 percent chlorine. The first two digits designate the number of carbons in the formulation. The chemical structure of PCBs results in the possibility of many different forms or isomers, (more commonly called congeners) of these compounds. PCBs in other countries have different trade names than Aroclor® (Table 41.2).

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Salt

Animals become victims of salt poisoning or toxicosis when toxic levels of sodium and chloride accumulate in the blood after they ingest large amounts of salt or, in some species, are deprived of water. For birds, salt sources may include saline water and road salt. Normally, the salt glands of birds (Fig. 47.1) excrete sodium and chloride to maintain the proper physiologic chemical balance. However, when there has been insufficient time for acclimation of the salt gland to the saline environment, or when salt gland function is compromised by exposure to certain pesticides or oil, the electrolyte balance of the blood may be upset by the excess sodium and chloride, resulting in toxicosis. Salt accumulation on the outside of the body, or salt encrustation, is a greater problem for waterbirds that use very saline waters than is salt toxicosis. Salt encrustation can lead to exertion, acute muscle degeneration, and eventual drowning during the struggle to escape entrapment.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Disease control operations

Individual disease outbreaks have killed many thousands of animals on numerous occasions. Tens of thousands of migratory birds have died in single die-offs with as many as 1,000 birds succumbing in 1 day. The ability to successfully combat such explosive situations is highly dependent on the readiness of field personnel to deal with them. Because many disease agents can spread through wildlife populations very quickly, advance preparation is essential for preventing infected animals from spreading disease to additional species and locations. Carefully thought-out disease contingency plans should be developed as practical working documents for field personnel and updated as necessary. Well-designed plans can prove invaluable in minimizing wildlife losses and the costs associated with disease control activities. Although requirements for disease control operations vary and must be tailored to each situation, all disease contingency planning involves general concepts and basic biological information. This chapter, which is intended to be a practical guide, identifies the major activities and needs of disease control operations, and relates them to disease contingency planning.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Intestinal coccidiosis

Coccidia are a complex and diverse group of protozoan (single-celled organisms) parasites; the coccidia group contains many species, most of which do not cause clinical disease. In birds, most disease-causing or pathogenic forms of coccidia parasites belong to the genus Eimeria. Coccidia usually invade the intestinal tract, but some invade other organs, such as the liver and kidney (see Chapter 27). Clinical illness caused by infection with these parasites is referred to as coccidiosis, but their presence without disease is called coccidiasis. In most cases, a bird that is infected by coccidia will develop immunity from disease and it will recover unless it is reinfected. The occurrence of disease depends, in part, upon the number of host cells that are destroyed by the juvenile form of the parasite, and this is moderated by many factors. Severely infected birds may die very quickly. Often, tissue damage to the bird’s intestine results in interrupted feeding; disruption of digestive processes or nutrient absorption; dehydration; anemia; and increased susceptibility to other disease agents. In cranes, coccidia that normally inhabit the intestine sometimes become widely distributed throughout the body. The resulting disease, disseminated visceral coccidiosis (DVC) of cranes, is characterized by nodules, or granulomas, on the surface of organs and tissues that contain developmental stages of the parasite. Collectively, coccidia are important parasites of domestic animals, but, because each coccidia species has a preference for parasitizing a particular bird species and because of the self-limiting nature of most infections, coccidiosis in freeranging birds has not been of great concern. However, habitat losses that concentrate bird populations and the increasing numbers of captive-reared birds that are released into the wild enhance the potential for problems with coccidiosis.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Eastern equine encephalomyelitis

Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) is caused by infection with an RNA virus classified in the family Togaviridae. The virus is also referred to as an “arbovirus” because virus replication takes place within mosquitoes that then transmit the disease agent to vertebrate hosts such as birds and mammals, including humans. The term arbovirus is shortened nomenclature for arthropod (insect) borne (transmitted) viruses. Culiseta melanura is the most important mosquito vector; it silently (no disease) transmits and maintains the virus among birds. However, several other mosquito species can transmit this virus, including the introduced Asian tiger mosquito. New hosts become infected when they enter this endemic natural cycle and are fed upon by an infected mosquito. Therefore, the presence of mosquito habitat, the feeding habits of different mosquito species, and the activity patterns of vertebrate hosts are among the important factors for disease transmission.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Specimen collection and preservation

Specimens are used to provide supporting information leading to the diagnosis of a cause of disease or death. A specimen may be an intact carcass, tissues removed from carcasses, parasites, ingested food, feces, or environmental samples. The specimen should be as fresh and undamaged as possible.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Miscellaneous herpesviruses of birds

Herpesviruses other than duck plague and inclusion body disease of cranes (see Chapters 16 and 17 in this Section) have been isolated from many groups of wild birds. The diseases that these viruses cause have been described, but their comparative taxonomy and host ranges require additional study. All of these DNA viruses are classified in the family Herpesviridae, but they belong to various taxonomic subfamilies. The mechanisms for transmitting avian herpesviruses appear to be direct bird-to-bird contact and exposure to a virus-contaminated environment. The virus is transmitted to raptors and owls when they feed on infected prey that serve as a source of virus exposure. The development of disease carriers among birds that survive infection is typical of herpesvirus. Stress induced by many different factors is often associated with the onset of virus shedding by carrier birds resulting in the occurrence and spread of clinical disease.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Recording and submitting specimen history data

History can be defined as a chronological record of significant events. In wildlife disease investigations, determining the history or background of a problem is the first significant step toward establishing a diagnosis. The diagnostic process is often greatly expedited by a thorough history accompanying specimens submitted for laboratory evaluation. This information is also important for understanding the natural history or epizootiology of disease outbreaks, and it is difficult, if not impossible, to obtain the history after the outbreak has occurred. Detailed field observations during the course of a die-off and an investigation of significant events preceding it also provide valuable information on which to base corrective actions. The most helpful information is that which is obtained at the time of the die-off event by a perceptive observer.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Cyanide

Cyanide poisoning of birds is caused by exposure to cyanide in two forms: inorganic salts and hydrogen cyanide gas (HCN). Two sources of cyanide have been associated with bird mortalities: gold and silver mines that use cyanide in the extraction process and a predator control device called the M-44 sodium cyanide ejector, which uses cyanide as the toxic agent. Most of the cyanide mortality documented in birds is a result of exposure to cyanide used in heap leach and carbonin-pulp mill gold or silver mining processes. At these mines, the animals are exposed when they ingest water that contains cyanide salts used in mining processes or, possibly, when they inhale HCN gas. In heap leach mining operations, the ore is placed on an impermeable pad over which a cyanide solution is sprayed or dripped. The cyanide solution dissolves and attaches to or “leaches out” the gold. The cyanide and gold solution is then drained to a plastic-lined pond, which is commonly called the pregnant pond. The gold is extracted, and the remaining solution is moved into another lined pond, which is commonly called the barren pond. The cyanide concentration in this pond is increased so that the solution is again suitable for use in the leaching process, and the solution is used again on the ore heap (Fig. 46.1). Bird use of the HCN-contaminated water in the ponds (Fig. 46.2) or contaminated water on or at the base of the heap leach pads (Fig. 46.3) can result in mortality.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Gizzard worms

Gizzard worms are comprised of several species of parasitic nematodes or roundworms of birds. Severe infections can result in birds becoming unthrifty and debilitated to the extent that they are more susceptible to predation and to infection by other disease agents. The two gizzard worms that are emphasized here are trichostrongylid nematodes that belong to the genera Amidostomum sp. and Epomidiostomum sp. These long (10–35 millimeter), sometimes coiled, threadlike roundworms are found just beneath the surface lining and the grinding pads of the gizzard, and they are most frequently found in waterfowl. Other species of gizzard worms are found in upland gamebirds such as grouse, in psitticine birds such as parakeets, and in passerine or perching birds such as robins in various parts of the world.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Woodcock reovirus

This chapter provides information on a recently identified disease of the American woodcock. Little is known about the disease or the virus that causes it. It has been included in this Manual to enhance awareness that such a disease exists and to stimulate additional interest in further investigations to define the importance of woodcock reovirus. More information about this disease is needed because it is not known whether or not this virus is a factor in the decline of woodcock populations within the United States.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Avian influenza

Wild birds, especially waterfowl and shorebirds, have long been a focus for concern by the poultry industry as a source for influenza infections in poultry. Human health concerns have also been raised. For these reasons, this chapter has been included to provide natural resource managers with basic information about avian influenza viruses.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Oil

Each year, an average of 14 million gallons of oil from more than 10,000 accidental spills flow into fresh and saltwater environments in and around the United States. Most accidental oil spills occur when oil is transported by tankers or barges, but oil is also spilled during highway, rail, and pipeline transport, and by nontransportation-related facilities, such as refinery, bulk storage, and marine and land facilities (Fig. 42.1). Accidental releases, however, account for only a small percentage of all oil entering the environment; in heavily used urban estuaries, the total petroleum hydrocarbon contributions due to transportation activities may be 10 percent or less. Most oil is introduced to the environment by intentional discharges from normal transport and refining operations, industrial and municipal discharges, used lubricant and other waste oil disposal, urban runoff, river runoff, atmospheric deposition, and natural seeps. Oil-laden wastewater is often released into settling ponds and wetlands (Fig. 42.2). Discharges of oil field brines are a major source of the petroleum crude oil that enters estuaries in Texas.

Information and Technology Report↗
USGS1999

Avian botulism

Avian botulism is a paralytic, often fatal, disease of birds that results when they ingest toxin produced by the bacterium, Clostridium botulinum . Seven distinct types of toxin designated by the letters A to G have been identified (Table 38.1). Waterfowl die-offs due to botulism are usually caused by type C toxin; sporadic die-offs among fish-eating birds, such as common loons and gulls, have been caused by type E toxin. Type A botulinum toxin has also caused disease in birds, most frequently in domestic chickens. Types B, D, F, and G are not known to cause avian botulism in North America.

Information and Technology Report↗