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Search indexed USGS publications on groundwater, aquifers, geologic maps, mineral resources and earthquakes. Explore source records by subject and place.

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1,101 records · Page 3Linked to original sources
USGS2024

Will there be water? Climate change, housing needs, and future water demand in California

Climate change in California is expected to alter future water availability, impacting water supplies needed to support future housing growth and agriculture demand. In groundwater-dependent regions like California's Central Coast, new land-use related water demand and decreasing recharge is already stressing depleted groundwater basins. We developed a spatially explicit state-and-transition simulation model that integrates climate, land-use change, water demand, and groundwater gain-loss to examine the impact of future climate and land use change on groundwater balance and water demand in five counties along the Central Coast from 2010 to 2060. The model incorporated downscaled groundwater recharge projections based on a Warm/Wet and a Hot/Dry climate future from a spatially explicit hydrological process-based model. Two urbanization projections from a parcel-based, regional urban growth model representing 1) recent historical and 2) state-mandated housing growth projections were used as alternative spatial targets for future urban growth. Agricultural projections were based on recent historical trends from remote sensing data. Annual projected changes in groundwater balance were calculated as the difference between land-use related water demand, based on historical estimates, and climate-driven recharge plus agriculture return flows. Results indicate that future changes in climate-driven groundwater recharge, coupled with cumulative increases in agricultural water demand, result in overall declines in future groundwater balance, with a Hot/Dry future resulting in cumulative groundwater decline in all but Santa Cruz County. Cumulative declines by 2060 are especially prominent in San Luis Obispo (−2.9 to −5.1 Bm 3 ) and Monterey counties (−6.5 to −8.7 Bm 3 ), despite limited changes in agricultural water demand over the model period. These two counties show declining groundwater reserves in a Warm/Wet future as well, while San Benito and Santa Barbara County barely reach equilibrium. These results suggest future groundwater supplies may not be able to keep pace with regional demand and declining climate-driven recharge, resulting in a potential reduction in water security in the region. However, our county-scale projections showed new housing and associated water demand does not conflict with California's groundwater sustainability goals. Rather, future climate coupled with increasing agricultural groundwater demand may reduce water security in some counties, potentially limiting available groundwater supplies for new housing.

California↗
USGS2025

Simulated effects of future water availability and protected species habitat in a perennial wetland, Santa Barbara County, California

This study evaluates the potential water availability in Barka Slough and the effects of changing hydrological conditions on the aquatic habitat of five protected species. Barka Slough is a historically perennial wetland at the downstream western end of the San Antonio Creek Valley watershed (SACVW). A previously published hydrologic model of the SACVW for 1948–2018 was extended to include 2019–2021 and then modified to simulate the future years of 2022–2051. Two models simulating the future years of 2022–2051 were constructed, each with different climate inputs: (1) a repeated historical climate and (2) a 2070-centered Drier Extreme Warming climate (2070 DEW). The model with the 2070 DEW climate had warmer temperatures and an increase in average annual precipitation driven by larger, albeit more infrequent, precipitation events than the model with the historical climate. Simulated groundwater pumpage resulted in cumulative groundwater storage depletion and groundwater-level decline in Barka Slough in both future models. The simulations indicate that Barka Slough may transition from a perennial to an ephemeral wetland. Streamflow, stream disconnection, and depth to groundwater are key habitat metrics for federally listed species in Barka Slough. Future seasonal conditions for each metric are more likely to affect federally listed species’ habitats under 2070 DEW climatic conditions. Future seasonal streamflow volume may negatively impact unarmored threespine stickleback ( Gasterosteus aculeatus williamsoni ) and tidewater goby ( Eucyclogobis newberryi) habitats. Future seasonal stream disconnection may negatively impact the unarmored threespine stickleback habitat. Future groundwater-level decline may negatively impact Gambel’s watercress ( Nasturtium gambelii ) and La Graciosa thistle ( Cirsium scariosum var. loncholepis ) habitats and could influence the ability to use Barka Slough as a restoration or reintroduction site for these species. Results from this study can be used to inform water management decisions to sustain future groundwater availability in the SACVW.

California↗
USGS2024

Getting to the surface of the problem: A dynamic rupture benchmark for shallowly dipping faults near Earth’s surface

The Statewide California Earthquake Center (SCEC) Dynamic Rupture Group workshop “Getting to the Surface of the Problem: A Dynamic Rupture Benchmark for Shallowly-Dipping Faults Near Earth’s Surface” was convened virtually, in an online meeting on November 4, 2024. 52 people participated, including two who sent pre-recorded lightning talks earlier, but were unable to join us that day due to the international time-zone difference. One-half of our participants were students or postdocs, and the group included scientists from 11 countries (USA, Canada, China, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Iceland, Japan, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, Switzerland).

Final Report↗
USGS2025

Bayesian mapping of regionally grouped, sparse, univariate earth science data

Some earth science data are naturally grouped by region, and it is often desirable to map these data by region. However, if there are only a few samples within each region, then the map should be smoothed in an appropriate way to mitigate the problems that arise from having only a few samples. A smoothing algorithm based on a Bayesian hierarchical model is developed and presented in this report. This algorithm has several features that make it especially suitable for mapping earth science data: it can account for measurements that are censored, it can process multiple datasets with different measurement errors and different censoring thresholds, and it can calculate the uncertainty in any statistic that is mapped. The algorithm is demonstrated by mapping gold concentrations that are measured in streambed sediments in the Taylor Mountains quadrangle in southwestern Alaska.

Alaska↗
USGS1976

Hydrogeology of stratified drift in Farmington, Connecticut: Available data and future needs

The purpose of this report is twofold. The first is to update hydrogeologic information on the major stratified-drift deposits that underlie much of Farmington. The second is to outline data requirements for future ground-water evaluation and management. The scope of the report is limited to the stratified drift, as it is the only aquifer capable of sustaining large withdrawals for public or industrial supply. This aquifer is composed of interbedded layers of gravel, sand, silt and clay. Most of this material was deposited by glacial meltwaters, but locally the aquifer contains some unconsolidated deposits of nonglacial origin. The most extensive stratified-drift deposits are in the valleys of the Farmington and Pequabuck Rivers.(See plate B.) A few small areas of stratified drift near East Farmington Heights and Oakland Gardens are not discussed in this report as their potential for large-scale development is slight.

Connecticut↗
USGS2026

The Sand AbrasioN Device for Aeolian Research (SANDAR): A new experimental device for investigating how wind transport affects sand on Earth and Mars

On Earth and Mars, aeolian transport causes sand grains to become abraded, resulting in mineralogic and textural changes. Understanding how sands evolve, or mature, with transport via experimental studies is important for understanding the origins, geologic history, and cycling of sediments, as well as dust production. Previous experimental works have used a variety of methods to simulate aeolian transport in the laboratory, but practical limitations and similitude concerns have limited such research. Here, we present and validate the Sand AbrasioN Device for Aeolian Research (SANDAR), a modified air mill that uses pressurized air to circulate sand around a small abrasion chamber, simulating the effects of aeolian transport. This device is re-circulating to simulate long-distance transport, and it allows for repeated analyses of well-constrained sediment samples, revealing their evolution over time. It is compatible with the grain sizes (74–500 μm) and grain impact velocities (∼0.6–3.7 m/s) typically expected for natural aeolian environments, and is also adaptable for diverse applications simulating different wind conditions. We show that the SANDAR achieves similitude of kinetic energy with respect to saltating sand on both Earth and Mars. SEM and optical microscope imaging reveal that the SANDAR produces microtextures on the surfaces of sand grains similar to those found with natural aeolian transport, demonstrating that it effectively simulates the mechanical effects of aeolian processes. Thus, the SANDAR is a valid tool for use in experimental research to improve our understanding of sedimentary processes across the Solar System.

Aeolian Research↗
USGS2026

Assessing future hydrologic extremes using an integrated hydrology and river operations model in the Russian River watershed

Study region The Russian River watershed, situated in coastal, northern California, experiences hydrologic extremes, including periodic droughts and flooding. Water managers are working to maintain sustainable water supplies and environmental flows, while mitigating flood risks. Study focus This paper introduces an integrated hydrology and river operations model for the Russian River watershed. This model is distinct from models in previous studies because it represents surface-groundwater interactions and uses climate forcings to estimate dynamic water use demands that are superimposed onto both reservoir operations and water supply constraints. The model was used to examine three historical (1990–2015) and eight future (2016–2099) water use and climate change scenarios. New hydrological insights for the region The direct connection between streams and aquifers facilitated both annual aquifer replenishment by high winter streamflows and streamflow depletion by groundwater wells (19 % of pumped groundwater in alluvial aquifers from stream leakage) during critical low flow periods. Simulated streamflow changes included 59 % longer and 54 % more severe streamflow droughts, 26 % lower seasonal low streamflows, and up to 125 % higher peak streamflows, averaged over future climate and water use scenarios, suggesting increased future flood and water availability risks. Results showed the importance of reservoir operations for mitigating the impacts of increased hydroclimatic volatility, despite a decrease in reservoir reliability at Lake Mendocino, suggesting that reservoir management may be used to decrease future risks.

California↗
USGS2026

Critical minerals in zinc ore—An update on Earth Mapping Resources Initiative Research in the Boulder Batholith region, Montana

Plain Language Summary U.S. Geological Survey research, in collaboration with Montana Technical University and Montana Bureau of Geology and Mines, is providing key critical mineral information that may have potential for critical mineral production of several mining districts in the Boulder Batholith region, to better understand the abundance and distribution of natural resources within this region. Continued research can be used to show the potential for previously undiscovered critical mineral resources in southwestern Montana and in other parts of the United States.

Montana↗
USGS2024

3-D mapping of the conterminous U.S. within the USGS National Cooperative Geologic Mapping Program: Progress and future prospects

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) National Cooperative Mapping Program (NCGMP) is bringing together subsurface and three-dimensional information at multiple scales for the conterminous United States from data produced throughout the USGS and by federal and state partners. Components of this work include data inventory and catalog development, data integration and database development, and construction of subregional and basin-scale three-dimensional (3-D) geologic models. At small scales, the NCGMP is compiling subsurface data to create a limited number of subsurface layers that map the majority of the lower 48 States. At larger scales, 3-D models of stratigraphic units are intended to be the subsurface analog and extension of the surface geologic maps made within the Program. The Mapping Program is developing methods of storing, visualizing, and distributing 3-D models and subsurface data from multiple sources in easily shareable, queryable, non-proprietary format(s). We report on progress in 3-D mapping of the conterminous U.S. and on future prospects.

conterminous United States↗
USGS2024

Triggering the 2022 eruption of Mauna Loa

Distinguishing periods of intermittent unrest from the run-up to eruption is a major challenge at volcanoes around the globe. Comparing multidisciplinary monitoring data with mineral chemistry that records the physical and spatio-temporal evolution of magmas fundamentally advances our ability to forecast eruptions. The recent eruption of Mauna Loa, Earth’s largest active volcano, provides a unique opportunity to differentiate unrest from run-up and improve forecasting of future eruptions. After decades of intermittent seismic and geodetic activity over 38 years of repose, Mauna Loa began erupting on 27 November 2022. Here we present a multidisciplinary synthesis that tracks the spatio-temporal evolution of precursory activity by integrating mineral and melt chemistry, fluid inclusion barometry, numerical modeling of mineral zoning, syn-eruptive gas plume measurements, the distribution and frequency of earthquake hypocenters, seismic velocity changes, and ground deformation. These diverse data indicate that the eruption occurred following a 2-month period of sustained magma intrusion from depths of 3–5 km up to 1–2 km beneath the summit caldera, providing a new model of the plumbing system at this very high threat volcano. Careful correlation of both the geochemistry and instrumental monitoring data improves our ability to distinguish unrest from the run-up to eruption by providing deeper understanding of the both the monitoring data and the magmatic system—an approach that could be applied at other volcanic systems worldwide.

Hawaii↗
USGS2025

Tracing metal sources and groundwater flow paths in the Upper Animas River watershed using rare earth elements and stable isotopes

Groundwater flow paths and processes that govern metal mobility and transport are difficult to characterize in mountainous bedrock watersheds. Despite the difficulty in holistic characterization, conceptual understanding of subsurface hydrologic and geochemical processes is key to developing remediation plans for locations affected by acid mine drainage, such as the Upper Animas River watershed in southwestern Colorado, USA. Stable isotopes of water and rare earth elements were utilized to evaluate groundwater flow and metal sources within this complex catchment. Stable isotope samples collected from draining mine adits and springs display systematic spatial variation wherein sample sites at higher elevations have greater seasonal variability than sites at lower elevations. The Upper Cement Creek watershed, where multiple draining mines are present, displays the lowest seasonal variation in stable isotopic signatures, potentially indicating the presence of a large, well-mixed volume of groundwater storage or interbasin groundwater flow. Rare earth elements display statistically significant variation between different alteration styles in the catchment. Overprinting of regional propylitic alteration is evident based on enrichment of middle rare earth elements in acidic springs and mines that are not spatially associated with surficial exposures of acid generating alteration styles. Europium anomaly and middle rare earth enrichment signatures from two flooded mine tunnels on opposite sides of a watershed divide indicate connections to the same subsurface flooded mine workings.

Colorado↗
USGS2026

Structural evolution of iron coordination in proteins across Earth’s oxygenation history

Protein metal-binding sites support essential biological functions shaped by protein fold, subunit interactions, and cofactor chemistry. Because these sites encode both biochemical function and environmental constraint, they offer a route to connect protein evolution with changes in Earth’s surface environment through time. Of particular interest is iron (Fe), the most widely used metal in biology and a cofactor central to both anaerobic and aerobic metabolism. Here, we systematically compare the immediate chemical environments of functionally essential Fe-binding sites in three-dimensional protein structures to test whether Fe coordination spheres differ across oxygen contexts. Using a curated dataset of experimentally determined structures, we identify a clear shift in the local chemistry of Fe-binding environments from anaerobic to aerobic proteins. Aerobic Fe sites are significantly more hydrophilic than anaerobic ones, and amino-acid composition analyses show reduced cysteine use in aerobic Fe-binding neighborhoods. These patterns suggest that as Earth’s surface environments became more oxygenated, proteins retained Fe as a core redox metal while reconfiguring local coordination chemistry in ways less vulnerable to oxidative damage. More broadly, this study introduces and applies the Coordination Sphere Analysis and Comparison (CSAC) workflow, an open and archived Python workflow for extracting local metal-binding environments from structure datasets, providing a framework for linking metalloprotein structure to evolutionary and geobiological transitions across Earth history.

Discover Life↗
USGS2024

System characterization report on the Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation (EMIT) sensor

Executive Summary This report addresses system characterization of the Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation (EMIT) sensor, an imaging spectrometer developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This report is part of a series of system characterization reports produced and delivered by the U.S. Geological Survey Earth Resources Observation and Science Cal/Val Center of Excellence. These reports present and detail the methodology and procedures for characterization; present technical and operational information about the specific sensing system being evaluated; and provide a summary of test measurements, data retention practices, data analysis results, and conclusions. The Earth Resources Observation and Science Cal/Val Center of Excellence system characterization team completed data analyses to characterize the geometric (interior and exterior) and radiometric performances. Results of these analyses indicate that the EMIT sensor has a band-to-band geometric performance in the range of −0.355 to 0.210 pixel with a few exceptions of shortwave infrared channels. Geometric offset relative to the Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager ranged from −15.966 meters (−0.266 pixel) to 43.844 meters (0.731 pixel). Offset of a radiometric comparison ranged from −0.016 to 0.025, and slope of a radiometric comparison ranged from 0.837 to 0.985. EMIT agreed with Radiometric Calibration Network measurements within 5 percent across most of the spectral channels.

Open-File Report↗
USGS2025

Earth Mapping Resources Initiative protocols—Sampling hard-rock mine waste and perpetual mine water sources

Supporting the overarching goal to evaluate critical minerals nationwide, the mine waste characterization effort in the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Earth Mapping Resources Initiative has created a series of protocols to standardize sampling carried out under this effort by the participating State geological surveys and their cooperators. The protocols are based on published, reviewed methods that can be deployed in the field. The protocols include (1) collecting and processing composite samples of mine and mill waste, including tailings, waste rock, gangue, heap leach piles, ore stockpiles, slag, or other mineralized and processed materials and (2) collecting and preserving water samples from perpetual or long-term mine water sources. The protocols also specify information to document on field sheets and detail the collection of geospatial data. The analytical methods used by the USGS and USGS contract laboratories are described in this report, including the data delivery pathway for USGS-derived data.

Scientific Investigations Report↗
USGS2025

Formation of the Mount Weld rare earth element deposit, Western Australia: A carbonatite-derived laterite

Carbonatite-hosted rare earth element (REE) deposits are the primary source of the world’s light REEs. The Mount Weld REE deposit in Western Australia is hosted in a lateritic sequence that reflects supergene enrichment of the underlying carbonatite. Water-rock interaction is a key to the formation of this world-class deposit. REE enrichment in the laterite is controlled by the breakdown of primary minerals, the release and transport of REEs, and the formation of secondary minerals. Secondary REE-bearing phosphate minerals are the primary REE-host phases in the laterite ore with monazite as the dominant phase; other REE-bearing phases include rhabdophane, cerianite, churchite, florencite, and crandallite subgroup minerals. Profiles through the laterite show that in the REE-rich zone, apatite and primary calcite and dolomite have broken down such that the loss of Ca and Mg, as well as Si and K, leads to a relative increase in the REEs. Sequestering of REEs in secondary mineral phases formed by groundwater further enhances the REE concentration.

Mount Weld Mine↗
USGS2025

Formation of the Mount Weld rare earth deposit, Western Australia: Geochronology constraints

Constraining the age of protracted chemical weathering in stable cratonic areas that may form thick regoliths and the potential enrichment of various elements is challenging. Economic deposits of aluminium, iron, copper, nickel, cobalt, niobium, and rare earth elements (REEs) form in this manner. Determining the age of formation can provide key information for exploration of similar deposits as well as to better constrain paleoclimatic conditions. This study describes our effort to constrain the age of formation of the Mount Weld deposit, a world-class carbonatite-derived REE laterite deposit. We utilize multiple geochronological techniques on different minerals. The oldest dates, ranging from ca. 100 to 50 Ma, were from laser ablation ICPMS, Lu-Hf dating of churchite, a heavy REE phosphate mineral formed by mineral saturation in groundwater. Growth bands on individual minerals show a younging outwards. 40 Ar/ 39 Ar geochronology of cryptomelane, a potassium-bearing manganese oxide mineral, yielded ages ranging from ca. 40 to 26 Ma. Similarly, (U–Th)/He geochronology of goethite yielded ages from ca. 45 to 19 Ma.

Mount Weld deposit↗
USGS2025

Speleothem evidence for Late Miocene extreme Arctic amplification – An analogue for near-future anthropogenic climate change?

The Miocene provides an excellent climatic analogue for near-future runaway anthropogenic warming, with atmospheric CO 2 concentrations and global average temperatures similar to those projected for the coming century under extreme-emissions scenarios. However, the magnitude of Miocene Arctic warming remains unclear due to the scarcity of reliable proxy data. Here we use stable oxygen isotope and trace element analyses, alongside clumped isotope and fluid inclusion palaeothermometry of speleothems to reconstruct palaeo-environmental conditions near the Siberian Arctic coast during the Tortonian (8.68 ± 0.09 Ma ). Stable oxygen isotope records suggest warmer-than-present temperatures. This is supported by temperature estimates based on clumped isotopes and fluid inclusions giving mean annual air temperatures between + 6.6 and + 11.1 °C , compared with − 12.3 °C today. Trace elements records reveal a highly seasonal hydrological environment. Our estimate of > 18 °C of Arctic warming supports the wider consensus of a warmer-than-present Miocene and provides a rare palaeo-analogue for future Arctic amplification under high-emissions scenarios. The reconstructed increase in mean surface temperature far exceeds temperatures projected in fully coupled global climate models, even under extreme-emissions scenarios. Given that climate models have consistently underestimated the extent of recent Arctic amplification, our proxy data suggest Arctic warming may exceed current projections.

Lena River delta↗
USGS2024

Groundwater-Surface water interactions research: Past trends and future directions

Interactions between groundwater and surface water sustain groundwater-dependent ecosystems and regulate river temperature and biogeochemical cycles, amongst many other processes. These interactions occur in freshwater environments including rivers, springs, lakes, and wetlands, and in coastal environments via tidal pumping, submarine groundwater discharge, and seawater intrusion. Here, we explore groundwater-surface water interactions research using bibliometric analyses of titles, abstracts, and keywords from 20,275 journal papers published between 1970 and 2023 extracted from Scopus. Analyses show that research into groundwater-surface water interactions is highly multi-disciplinary, with growing contributions from the social and biological sciences. The number of groundwater-surface water interactions papers is rapidly increasing with over 1200 papers published per year since 2020. Drawing on our data-driven approach and expert knowledge, we synthesise current research trends and identify critical future research directions. Despite the thousands of papers on groundwater-surface water interactions, important processes are still difficult to quantify or predict at meaningful spatial scales to inform water-resources management. We see benefits in future groundwater-surface water interactions research focusing on: (1) using new technologies including internet-of-things-based sensors, uncrewed vehicles, and remote-sensing approaches for data collection to inform groundwater-surface water interactions at large scales, (2) seeking approaches to upscale site-specific findings to better inform management, and (3) continuing the movement towards multi-disciplinary investigations to better inform the understanding of groundwater-surface water interactions and processes that will enable better management outcomes.

Journal of Hydrology↗