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USGS2024

Outcomes of control and monitoring of a widespread riparian invader (Tamarix spp.): A comparison of synthesis approaches

Effective ecological restoration requires empirical assessment to determine outcomes of projects, but conclusions regarding the effects of restoration treatments on the whole ecosystem remain rare. Control of invasive shrubs and trees in the genus Tamarix and associated riparian restoration in the American Southwest has been of interest to scientists and resource managers for decades; dozens of studies have reported highly variable outcomes of Tamarix control efforts, as measured by a range of response variables, temporal and spatial scales and monitoring strategies. We conducted a literature search and review, meta-analysis and vote count (comparison of numerical outcomes lacking reported variances and/or sample sizes) on published papers that quantitatively measured a variety of responses to control of Tamarix . From 96 publications obtained through a global search on terms related to Tamarix control, we found 52 publications suitable for a meta-analysis (n = 777 comparisons) and 63 publications suitable for two vote counts (n = 1,460 comparisons total; 622 comparisons reported as statistically significant) of response to Tamarix control. We estimated responses to control by treatment type (e.g. cut-stump treatment, burning, biocontrol) and ecosystem component (e.g. vegetation, fauna, fluvial processes). Finally, we compared results of the various synthesis methods to determine whether the increasingly stringent requirements for inclusion led to biased outcomes. Vegetation metrics, especially measures of Tamarix response, were the most commonly assessed. Ecosystem components other than vegetation, such as fauna, soils and hydrogeomorphic dynamics, were under-represented. The meta-analysis showed significantly positive responses by vegetation overall to biocontrol, herbicide and cut-stump treatments. This was primarily due to reduction of Tamarix cover; impacts on replacement vegetation were highly variable. We found concordance amongst our varied synthesis approaches, indicating that increased granularity from stricter quantitative techniques does not come at the cost of a biased sample. Overall, our results indicate that common control methods are generally effective for reducing Tamarix , but the indirect effects on other aspects of the ecosystem are variable and remain understudied. Given that this is a relatively well-studied invasive plant species, our results also illustrate the limitations of not only individual studies, but also of reviews for measuring the impact of invasive species control. We call on researchers to investigate the less commonly studied responses to Tamarix control and riparian restoration including the effects on fauna, soil and hydrogeomorphic characteristics.

NeoBiota↗

USGS2011

Amphibian responses to wildfire in the western united states: Emerging patterns from short-term studies

The increased frequency and severity of large wildfires in the western United States is an important ecological and management issue with direct relevance to amphibian conservation. Although the knowledge of fire effects on amphibians in the region is still limited relative to most other vertebrate species, we reviewed the current literature to determine if there are evident patterns that might be informative for conservation or management strategies. Of the seven studies that compared pre- and post-wildfire data on a variety of metrics, ranging from amphibian occupancy to body condition, two reported positive responses and five detected negative responses by at least one species. Another seven studies used a retrospective approach to compare effects of wildfire on populations: two studies reported positive effects, three reported negative effects from wildfire, and two reported no effects. All four studies that included plethodontid salamanders reported negative effects on populations or individuals; these effects were greater in forests where fire had been suppressed and in areas that burned with high severity. Species that breed in streams are also vulnerable to post-wildfire changes in habitat, especially in the Southwest. Wildfire is also important for maintaining suitable habitat for diverse amphibian communities, although those results may not be evident immediately after an area burns. We expect that wildfire will extirpate few healthy amphibian populations, but it is still unclear how populations will respond to wildfire in the context of land management (including pre- and post-fire timber harvest) and fragmentation. Wildfire may also increase the risk of decline or extirpation for small, isolated, or stressed (e.g., from drought or disease) populations. Improved understanding of how these effects vary according to changes in fire frequency and severity are critical to form more effective conservation strategies for amphibians in the western United States.

Fire Ecology↗

USGS2021

Climate change risks and adaptation options for Madagascar

Climate change poses an increasing threat to achieving development goals and is often considered in development plans and project designs. However, there have been challenges in the effective implementation of those plans, particularly in the sustained engagement of the communities to undertake adaptive actions, but also due to insufficient scientific information to inform management decisions. Madagascar is a country rich in natural capital and biodiversity but with high levels of poverty, food insecurity, population growth, and exploitation of natural resources. The country faces development and environmental challenges that may be intensified by climate change. The objective of this review is to provide a synthesis of the best-available information regarding climate change impacts on sectoral interests in Madagascar. To do this, we conducted a review of recent literature and conducted formal discussions with development agencies, non-government organizations (NGOs), and other stakeholders. Climate risks in Madagascar include increasing temperatures, reduced and more variable precipitation, more frequent droughts, more intense cyclones, and rising sea levels. We synthesized the observed and projected impacts of climate change on water resources, agriculture, human health, coastal ecosystems, fisheries, and terrestrial ecosystems and ecosystem services, and we discuss ongoing climate adaptation and mitigation activities. Because sectoral challenges and opportunities are linked, coordination among development organizations would be beneficial as they create new climate adaptation and mitigation initiatives.

Ecology and Society↗

USGS2013

Ecological impacts of energy-wood harvests: Lessons from whole-tree harvesting and natural disturbance

Recent interest in using forest residues and small-diameter material for biofuels is generating a renewed focus on harvesting impacts and forest sustainability. The rich legacy of research from whole-tree harvesting studies can be examined in light of this interest. Although this research largely focused on consequences for forest productivity, in particular carbon and nutrient pools, it also has relevance for examining potential consequences for biodiversity and aquatic ecosystems. This review is framed within a context of contrasting ecosystem impacts from whole-tree harvesting because it represents a high level of biomass removal. Although whole-tree harvesting does not fully use the nonmerchantable biomass available, it indicates the likely direction and magnitude of impacts that can occur through energy-wood harvesting compared with less-intensive conventional harvesting and to dynamics associated with various natural disturbances. The intent of this comparison is to gauge the degree of departure of energy-wood harvesting from less intensive conventional harvesting. The review of the literature found a gradient of increasing departure in residual structural conditions that remained in the forest when conventional and whole-tree harvesting was compared with stand-replacing natural disturbance. Important stand- and landscape-level processes were related to these structural conditions. The consequence of this departure may be especially potent because future energy-wood harvests may more completely use a greater range of forest biomass at potentially shortened rotations, creating a great need for research that explores the largely unknown scale of disturbance that may apply to our forest ecosystems.

Journal of Forestry↗

USGS2003

Environmental fate and effects of the lampricide bayluscide: a review

Bayluscide is an additive to TFM that increases the effectiveness of TFM as a lampricide. A review of the literature was undertaken to determine the environmental fate and effects of Bayluscide. Niclosamide (2', 5-dichloro-4'-nitrosalicylanilide), the active ingredient of Bayluscide, degrades rapidly in natural water and sediment systems, however, the rate of degradation is very slow in autoclaved samples. This difference suggests that degradation under laboratory conditions is dependent on microbial activity and hydrolysis plays a minor role in degradation of niclosamide. The major degradation product of niclosamide has been reported to be aminoniclosamide (2',5-dichloro-4'-aminosalicylanilide), which represented more than 50% of the residues extractable from sediments. Significantly more of the chemical is adsorbed to sediments with higher organic content and at lower pH's. The mobility of niclosamide in soil can be characterized as slight to medium; the estimated leaching distance would range from 0 to > 25 cm depending on the soil type and pH. The active ingredient of Bayluscide (niclosamide) is decomposed by ultra-violet light depending on the intensity and duration of the exposure. The uptake of residues by most invertebrates exposed to super(14)C-niclosamide is fairly rapid and equilibrium is reached within 24 h. About 90% of the accumulated residues were lost within 48 h after the organisms were transferred to clean flowing water. As with invertebrates, fish rapidly accumulate and eliminate residues of niclosamide. Three distinct residues were isolated from the extracts of edible fillet tissue; parent niclosamide, the glucuronide conjugate of niclosamide, and the sulfate ester of niclosamide. Aquatic plants and agricultural crops do not appear to be adversely affected at concentrations of Bayluscide used for lamprey or snail control. Mayflies (Hexagenia sp.). tend to be susceptible to TFM, but are relatively resistant to the effects of exposure to Bayluscide. Bayluscide was originally developed as a molluscicide to eliminate snails. Therefore, it is not surprising that mollusks are extremely sensitive to Bayluscide. Oral, dermal, and ocular administration of Bayluscide to mammals resulted in no clinical signs of systemic toxicity. Tests of the chronic effects of Bayluscide indicated that it is not mutagenic or carcinogenic. Bayluscide is not persistent in the environment; it breaks down in natural water and sediment systems through hydrolysis, photolysis, and microbial degradation. Given the limited use and tight control maintained by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service during applications of lampricides, Bayluscide presents minimal risk to human health and safety of the environment.

Journal of Great Lakes Research↗

USGS1996

Environmental Contaminants in Wildlife: Interpreting Tissue Concentrations

Covers the complex issue of how to evaluate contaminants in wildlife. This comprehensive resource deals with the question: 'How much of a chemical in the tissues of an animal is harmful?' Features: Authoritative and sound advice is provided on many environmental contaminants, including what the contaminants are and how to interpret the data on them. Each chapter includes a review of the literature on a specific chemical, followed by a clear technical summary that provides research guidance. Direction is given on how to interpret data that are sometimes conflicting or insufficient. Data are presented in easy to use tables. Primary attention is given to toxic concentrations of contaminants such as organochlorine pesticides, PCBs, dioxins, PAHs, metals, and fluorides.

SETAC Special Publications Series.↗

USGS1988

Agricultural chemicals and the quality of prairie-pothole wetlands for adult and juvenile waterfowl - What are the concerns?

A review of the literature and results of ongoing studies indicates that the potential for agricultural chemicals, particularly aerially-applied insecticides, to enter prairie potholes and reduce the quality of these wetlands for waterfowl is great, and that a coordinated effort by farmers, wildlife managers, and regulatory agencies is needed to minimize these impacts

Biological Report↗

USGS1997

A new database on contaminant exposure and effects in terrestrial vertebrates for natural resource managers

The Biomonitoring of Environmental Status and Trends (BEST) program of the Department of the Interior is focused to identify and understand effects of contaminant stressors on biological resources under their stewardship. Despite the desire of many to continuously monitor the environmental health of our estuaries, much can be learned by summarizing existing temporal, geographic, and phylogenetic contaminant information. To this end, retrospective contaminant exposure and effects data for amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals residing within 30 km of Atlantic coast estuaries are being assembled through searches of published literature (e.g., Fisheries Review, Wildlife Review, BIOSIS Previews) and databases (e.g., US EPA Ecological Incident Information System; USGS Diagnostic and Epizootic Databases), and compilation of summary data from unpublished reports of government natural resource agencies, private conservation groups, and universities. These contaminant exposure and effect data for terrestrial vertebrates (CEE-TV) are being summarized using Borland dBASE in a 96- field format, including species, collection time and site coordinates, sample matrix, contaminant concentration, biomarker and bioindicator responses, and source of information (N>1500 records). This CEE-TV database has been imported into the ARC/INFO geographic information system (GIS), for purposes of examining geographic coverage and trends, and to identify critical data gaps. A preliminary risk assessment will be conducted to identify and characterize contaminants and other stressors potentially affecting terrestrial vertebrates that reside, migrate through or reproduce in these estuaries. Evaluations are underway, using specific measurement and assessment endpoints, to rank and prioritize estuarine ecosystems in which terrestrial vertebrates are potentially at risk for purposes of prediction and focusing future biomonitoring efforts.

Book chapter↗

USGS1998

International impact research and management

To be sustainable, ecotourism requires the protection of natural environments and processes both from development and operation of the tourism infrastructure, and from the activities of ecotourists within protected areas. This book chapter reviews the international literature on the study of visitor or recreation-related resource impacts with special reference to ecotourism. Four case examples are presented to characterize the geographic scope, focus, and principal findings of this recreation ecology literature and its relevance to ecotourism management. Case examples include the Cairngorms National Nature Reserve, Scotland; the Great Barrier Reef, Australia; the Central American tropics; and wildlife viewing in Kenya?s protected areas. Implications for the management of international protected areas and ecotourism resources are discussed.

Book chapter↗

USGS2000

Ecotoxicology of wild mammals

An international group of 32 scientists has critically reviewed the scientific literature on exposure and effects of environmental contaminants in wild mammals. Although the absolute number of toxicological studies in domesticated and wild mammals eclipses that for birds, a detailed examination of scientific publications and databases reveal that information for 'wild' birds is actually greater than that for 'wild' mammals. Of the various taxa of mammals, ecotoxicological data is most noticeably lacking for marsupials and monotremes. In contrast, rodents (comprising 43% of all mammal species) have been studied extensively, despite evidence of their tolerance to some organochlorine compounds, rodenticides, and even radionuclides. Mammalian species at greatest risk of exposure include those that consume a high percentage of their body weight on a daily basis (e.g., shrews, moles and bats). Aquatic mammals tend to bioaccumulate tremendous burdens of lipophilic contaminants, although storage in their fat depots may actually limit toxicity. Carnivores appear to be more sensitive to adverse effects of environmental contaminants than herbivores. Remarkably few of the thousands of compounds manufactured worldwide have been toxicologically evaluated in wild mammals, and concentrations of even fewer have been monitored in tissues. Overarching research needs include: development of new exposure/effects models and better methods for estimation of species sensitivities; generation of comparative data on contaminant bioavailability, sublethal responses and detoxication mechanisms; enhanced understanding of pesticide, industrial contaminant and metal interactions; identification of endocrine disruptive contaminants and their overall ecological significance; and finally, estimating the relative contribution of environmental contamination as a factor affecting wild mammal populations.

Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry,↗

USGS2001

Trekking poles: Can you save your knees and the environment?

The increasing use of trekking poles has stimulated a growing awareness of some environmental and social impacts associated with their use. These impacts have not been documented in the scientific literature. This article reviews the impacts of trekking pole use to provide a basis for further dialogue, and suggests how they may be altered or used in ways that will minimize impact.

USGS2000

Monitoring hydrilla using two RAPD procedures and the nonindigenous aquatic species database

Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle), an invasive aquatic weed, continues to spread to new regions in the United States. Two biotypes, one a female dioecious and the other monoecious have been identified. Management of the spread of hydrilla requires understanding the mechanisms of introduction and transport, an ability to map and make available information on distribution, and tools to distinguish the known U.S. biotypes as well as potential new introductions. Review of the literature and discussions with aquatic scientists and resource managers point to the aquarium and water garden plant trades as the primary past mechanism for the regional dispersal of hydrilla while local dispersal is primarily carried out by other mechanisms such as boat traffic, intentional introductions, and waterfowl. The Nonindigenous Aquatic Species (NAS) database is presented as a tool for assembling, geo-referencing, and making available information on the distribution of hydrilla. A map of the current range of dioecious and monoecious hydrilla by drainage is presented. Four hydrilla samples, taken from three discrete, non-contiguous regions (Pennsylvania, Connecticut, and Washington State) were examined using two RAPD assays. The first, generated using primer Operon G17, and capable of distinguishing the dioecious and monoecious U.S. biotypes, indicated all four samples were of the monoecious biotype. Results of the second assay using the Stoffel fragment and 5 primers, produced 111 markers, indicated that these samples do not represent new foreign introductions. The differences in the monoecious and dioecious growth habits and management are discussed.

Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Washington↗

USGS2002

The flora of Oktibbeha County, Mississippi

We surveyed the flora of Oktibbeha County, Mississippi, U.S.A., from February 1994 to 1996. Occupying 118 square kilometers in east-central Mississippi, Oktibbeha County lies among 3 physiographic regions that include, from west to east, Interior Flatwoods, Pontotoc Ridge, and Black Prairie. Accordingly, the county harbors a diverse flora. Based on field work, as well as an extensive review of published literature and herbarium records at IBE and MISSA, we recorded a total of 1,148 taxa (1,125 species, 7 hybrids, 16 infraspecific taxa) belonging to 514 genera in 160 families, over 85% of all taxa documented were native. Compared to 3 other counties in east-central Mississippi, Oktibbeha County has the second largest recorded flora. The number of state-listed (endangered, threatened, or of special concern) taxa (67) documented in this survey far exceeds that reported from any other county in the region. Three introduced species, Ilex cornuta Lindl. & Paxton, Mahonia bealei (Fortune) Carrie??re, and Nandina domestica Thunb., are reported in a naturalized state for the first time from Mississippi. We also describe 16 different plant communities belonging to 5 broad habitat categories: bottomland forests, upland forests and prairies, aquatic habitats, seepage areas, and human-influenced habitats. A detailed description of the vegetation associated with each of these communities is provided.

SIDA, Contributions to Botany↗

USGS2015

Potential nitrogen critical loads for northern Great Plains grassland vegetation

The National Park Service is concerned that increasing atmospheric nitrogen deposition caused by fossil fuel combustion and agricultural activities could adversely affect the northern Great Plains (NGP) ecosystems in its trust. The critical load concept facilitates communication between scientists and policy makers or land managers by translating the complex effects of air pollution on ecosystems into concrete numbers that can be used to inform air quality targets. A critical load is the exposure level below which significant harmful effects on sensitive elements of the environment do not occur. A recent review of the literature suggested that the nitrogen critical load for Great Plains vegetation is 10-25 kg N/ha/yr. For comparison, current atmospheric nitrogen deposition in NGP National Park Service (NPS) units ranges from ~4 kg N/ha/yr in the west to ~13 kg N/ha/yr in the east. The suggested critical load, however, was derived from studies far outside of the NGP, and from experiments investigating nitrogen loads substantially higher than current atmospheric deposition in the region. Therefore, to better determine the nitrogen critical load for sensitive elements in NGP parks, we conducted a four-year field experiment in three northern Great Plains vegetation types at Badlands and Wind Cave National Parks. The vegetation types were chosen because of their importance in NGP parks, their expected sensitivity to nitrogen addition, and to span a range of natural fertility. In the experiment, we added nitrogen at rates ranging from below current atmospheric deposition (2.5 kg N/ha/yr) to far above those levels but commensurate with earlier experiments (100 kg N/ha/yr). We measured the response of a variety of vegetation and soil characteristics shown to be sensitive to nitrogen addition in other studies, including plant biomass production, plant tissue nitrogen concentration, plant species richness and composition, non-native species abundance, and soil inorganic nitrogen concentration. To determine critical loads for the NGP plant communities in our experiment, we followed the NPS’s precautionary principle in assuming that it is better to be cautious than to let harm occur to the environment. Thus, the critical loads we derived are the lowest nitrogen level that any of our data suggest has a measureable effect on any of the response variables measured. Badlands sparse vegetation, a low-productivity plant community that is an important part of the scenery at Badlands National Park and provides habitat for rare plant species, was the most sensitive of the three vegetation types. More aspects of this vegetation type responded to nitrogen addition, and at lower levels, than at the other two sites. Our data suggest that nitrogen deposition levels of 4- 6 kg N/ha/yr may increase biomass production, and consequently the amount of dead plant material on the ground in this plant community. Slightly higher critical loads are suggested for the two more productive vegetation types more characteristic of most NGP grasslands: 6-10 kg N/ha/yr for biomass production, grass tissue nitrogen concentration, or non-native species (especially annual brome grasses) cover. Highly variable results among years, as well as inconsistent responses to an increasing dose of nitrogen within sites, complicated the derivation of critical loads in this experiment, however. A less precautionary approach to deriving critical loads yielded higher values of 10-38 kg N/ha/yr.

Northern Great Plains↗

USGS2016

A potential predator-prey interaction of an American badger and an Agassiz's desert tortoise with a review of badger predation on turtles

The federally threatened Agassiz’s desert tortoise ( Gopherus agassizii ) was listed under the U.S. Endangered Species Act in 1990, but thus far, recovery efforts have been unsuccessful (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [USFWS] 2015). Predation has been identified as a contributing factor to declining G. agassizii populations range-wide (e.g., Esque et al. 2010, Lovich et al. 2014). Understanding and managing for predator-prey dynamics is thus an important part of the recovery and conservation of this threatened species (USFWS 2011). Desert tortoises have a host of predators at all stages of their life cycle. Over 20 species of birds, mammals, and reptiles have been recorded as known or suspected predators (Woodbury and Hardy 1948, Luckenbach 1982, Ernst and Lovich 2009). American badgers ( Taxidea taxus , family: Mustelidae) are confirmed excavators of desert tortoise nests (Turner and Berry 1984). They are also suspected predators of adult desert tortoises, a possibility which has been presented in some studies but without empirical verification (Luckenbach 1982, Turner and Berry 1984). Active mostly at night, badgers are solitary, secretive predators (Lindzey 1978, 1982; Armitage 2004) that are extremely difficult to observe in predatory encounters. Recently, strong circumstantial evidence presented by Emblidge et al. (2015) suggests that badgers do prey on adult Agassiz’s desert tortoises based on observations of more than two dozen dead tortoises in the Western Mojave Desert of California. In this note, we present another case of potential badger predation on a large adult desert tortoise in the Sonoran Desert of California. Collectively, these recent two cases potentially indicate that badger predation may be more common and widespread than previously thought. In addition, we review the worldwide literature of badger predation on turtles in general and summarize reported badger observations in Joshua Tree National Park, where our observation occurred, over a period of 55 years.

California↗

USGS2018

Biodiversity of amphibians and reptiles at the Camp Cady Wildlife Area, Mojave Desert, California and comparisons with other desert locations

We examined the biodiversity of amphibian and reptile species living in and near constructed ponds in the riparian area at the Camp Cady Wildlife Area (CCWA) in the Mojave Desert of San Bernardino County, California, based on field work from 1998-1999, 2016-2017, review of the literature, and searches for museum specimens using VertNet.org. A total of 11 species (201 captures), including two frogs and toads (one non-native frog), one turtle, three snakes, and five lizards were captured at terrestrial drift fences with pitfall traps encircling two ponds (0.5 hectares total) on the property in 1999. Four additional species (one frog, one lizard, and two snakes) were previously reported in 1978 from a ranch 1.6 km southwest from CCWA for a total of 15 species in the local area. The southwestern pond turtle (Actinemys pallida), was commonly observed at CCWA from 1998 to 1999 and documented as a breeding population. However, the species was extirpated at CCWA sometime after 2014 when the last individuals were photographed, and none have been detected since then despite significant efforts to do so. Biodiversity of amphibians and reptiles at CCWA is relatively low compared with sites elsewhere in the Mojave Desert with more elevational diversity. The 14 native species documented at CCWA accounts for approximately 21% of the native reptile and amphibian species reported by Stewart (1994) for the entire Mojave Desert, including peripheral species. Our smaller sample likely represents a group of easily detected species and is biased toward those found in or near water, especially amphibians. However, the relative proportion of amphibians vs. reptiles that inhabited CCWA in the last 40 years is not significantly different from the recently compiled proportions at five military installations in the California deserts. The herpetofauna inhabiting CCWA is notable for including riparian obligates like the western toad (Anaxyrus boreas), Northern Baja California treefrog (Pseudacris h. hypochondriaca), and A. pallida that are otherwise absent from large portions of the Mojave Desert. Other species are typical of those that are expected in the low-elevation creosote scrubdominated ecosystem in the area.

California↗

USGS2024

A review of the ecology and conservation biology of Sali (Micronesian Starling, Aplonis opaca guami) on Guam

The accidental introduction of the Brown Treesnake (BTS, Boiga irregularis ) to Guam following World War II led to the extinction, extirpation, or severe decline of most of Guam’s native avifauna. One forest bird species that managed to persist is the cavity-nesting Såli (Micronesian Starling, Aplonis opaca guami ), a once-ubiquitous native omnivore whose current Guam distribution is restricted primarily to urbanized areas in the northern half of the island, with a second much smaller population on Cocos Island off southern Guam. Såli on Guam breed year-round and are habitat generalists with large home ranges. Besides arthropods and small vertebrates, they consume fruit from a wide range of native and introduced plant species and are key seed dispersers within the local ecosystem. Såli on Guam suffer extremely high post-fledging mortality due to predation by BTS and cats, leading to a population age structure strongly skewed towards adult birds. Other threats include habitat loss and degradation, extreme weather events, and sea level rise. Key management activities aimed at restoring this species include predator control, while non-native ungulate removal and vegetation management may be undertaken to support broader ecological recovery. This species account on Såli provides a review of the literature on this species, synthesizing information on habitat use, life history, and demographics to provide a biological foundation for future recovery efforts.

Micronesica↗

USGS1989

Effects of fire in the Northern Great Plains

This publication is a review of selected literature about prescribed burning in the Northern Great Plains (NGP) for management of wildlife. It also will be useful to other resource managers and researchers and to persons interested in the NGP. It is more 'descriptive' than 'interpretative.'The publication is a joint effort of the South Dakota State Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit (SDCFWRU), South Dakota State University, Brookings; the Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center (NPWRC), Jamestown, N.D.; and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), Fergus Falls, Minn. Manuscript typing and library services were shared between SDCFWRU and NPWRC.This publication (EC 761) is the second of three SDSU Extension circulars on grassland fires. EC 760 is Prescribed burning guidelines in the Northern Great Plains; EC 762 is Annotated bibliography of fire literature relative to northern grasslands in South-Central Canada and North-Central United States and contains many more citations than presented in this publication. All three circulars may be obtained from either the Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences Department; SDSU Box 2206; ph (605) 688-6121; or from the Ag Communications Bulletin Room; SDSU Box 2231; ph (605) 688-5628; both in Brookings, S.D. 57007.

Report↗