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USGS2016

Predictive mapping of seabirds, pinnipeds and cetaceans off the Pacific Coast of Washington

About this report This report supports Washington-led marine spatial planning and responsible stewardship of natural and cultural resources by the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary. Washington state agencies and the sanctuary continually seek the best available science to improve management of marine uses and stewardship of resources (Etheridge et al., 2010; Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, 2015a). This report and associated data provide new, state- and sanctuary-requested information on seabird, pinniped, and cetacean distributions. Through spatial planning, information on species distributions can help to identify high-value conservation areas, minimize adverse effects of ocean uses and mitigate impacts of coastal hazards. Correspondingly, the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife has already begun to use the maps of predicted relative density presented in this report to identify ecologically important areas off the Pacific Coast of Washington and apply this information to plan for offshore renewable energy development. This is the culmination of three years of work to compile information on seabirds, pinnipeds, and cetaceans, and advance a modeling framework that can integrate data sets and develop accurate predictions of relative density for important species off the Pacific Coast of Washington. Previous reports, which evaluated existing datasets of at-sea observations (Menza et al., 2014; Kracker and Menza, 2015) and presented superseded versions of seabird models (Menza et al., 2015), provided base information for this report. In addition to the maps in this published report, all new seabird, pinniped and cetacean predictions will be made publicly available as digital geospatial data through the National Centers for Environmental Information. This research supports the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Coastal Zone Management Program, a voluntary partnership between the federal government and U.S. coastal and Great Lakes states and territories authorized by the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) of 1972 to address national coastal issues. The act provides the basis for protecting, restoring, and responsibly developing our nation’s diverse coastal communities and resources. To meet the goals of the CZMA, the national program takes a comprehensive approach to coastal resource management – balancing the often competing and occasionally conflicting demands of coastal resource use, economic development, and conservation. A wide range of issues are addressed through the program, including coastal development, water quality, public access, habitat protection, energy facility siting, ocean governance and planning, coastal hazards, and climate change. Accurate maps of seabird and marine mammal distributions are an important tool for making informed management decisions that affect all of these issues.

Washington↗
USGS2002

Comparison of the Eastern and Western Kentucky coal fields (Pennsylvanian), USA-why are coal distribution patterns and sulfur contents so different in these coal fields?

More than 130 Mt of Pennsylvanian coal is produced annually from two coal fields in Kentucky. The Western Kentucky Coal Field occurs in part of the Illinois Basin, an intercratonic basin, and the Eastern Kentucky Coal Field occurs in the Central Appalachian Basin, a foreland basin. The basins are only separated by 140 km, but mined western Kentucky coal beds exhibit significantly higher sulfur values than eastern Kentucky coals. Higher-sulfur coal beds in western Kentucky have generally been inferred to be caused by more marine influences than for eastern Kentucky coals. Comparison of strata in the two coal fields shows that more strata and more coal beds accumulated in the Eastern than Western Kentucky Coal Field in the Early and Middle Pennsylvanian, inferred to represent greater generation of tectonic accommodation in the foreland basin. Eastern Kentucky coal beds exhibit a greater tendency toward splitting and occurring in zones than time-equivalent western Kentucky coal beds, which is also inferred to represent foreland accommodation influences, overprinted by autogenic sedimentation effects. Western Kentucky coal beds exhibit higher sulfur values than their eastern counterparts, but western Kentucky coals occurring in Langsettian through Bolsovian strata can be low in sulfur content. Eastern Kentucky coal beds may increase in sulfur content beneath marine zones, but generally are still lower in sulfur than mined Western Kentucky coal beds, indicating that controls other than purely marine influences must have influenced coal quality. The bulk of production in the Eastern Kentucky Coal Field is from Duckmantian and Bolsovian coal beds, whereas production in the Western Kentucky Coal Field is from Westphalian D coals. Langsettian through Bolsovian paleoclimates in eastern Kentucky were favorable for peat doming, so numerous low-sulfur coals accumulated. These coals tend to occur in zones and are prone to lateral splitting because of foreland tectonic and sedimentation influences. In contrast, Westphalian D coal beds of western Kentucky accumulated during low differential tectonic accommodation, and therefore tend to be widespread and uniform in characteristics, but exhibit higher sulfur values because they accumulated in seasonally drier paleoclimates that were unfavorable for peat doming. Hence, basin analyses indicate that many differences between the mined coals of Kentucky's two coal fields are related to temporal changes in paleoclimate and tectonic accommodation, rather than solely being a function of marine influences. ?? 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

International Journal of Coal Geology↗
USGS2006

An incidence of twinning in the sea otter (Enhydra lutris)

On 3 October 1984 at 0928 h (PST) near Pt. San Simeon, California (35°39’N, 121°11’W), we observed a female sea otter ( Enhydra lutris ) resting in a kelp bed ( Macrocystis pyrifera ) with a small pup on her chest; approximately 2 m away another small pup floated unattended in the kelp. The only other otters we saw in the area was a mated pair (adult male tending an adult female) resting about 20 m from the mother and pups. At 0929 h the mother swam to the unattended pup and placed it on her abdomen next to the other pup. We concluded that live birth of twin pups had occurred, an incident previously unrecorded for the species.

California↗
USGS2006

Status of dugongs in waters around Palau

The dugong, Dugong dugon , is widely distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific region in shallow tropical and subtropical waters (Nishiwaki and Marsh 1985).The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources lists the species as vulnerable (Thornback and Jenkins 1982), as it is severely depleted or extinct in many parts of its former range (Nishiwaki and Marsh 1985). Many populations at isolated archipelagos have been exterminated through direct human exploitation. Husar (1975) cited evidence of the former existence of dugongs around the Mascarene, Laccadive, Maldive, Barren, Narcondom, Cocos (Keeling), Christmas, and Lesser Sunda islands. An isolated dugong population still occurs around Palau (Republic of Belau), Western Caroline Islands, about 850 km from both Papua New Guinea to the south and the Philippines to the west. The first aerial surveys of this population, in 1977 and 1978, indicated that it was small and other evidence suggested it was subject to persistent poaching (Brownell et al. 1981). We resurveyed this population in 1983 to reassess its status and attempt to detect any changes in distribution or abundance. With the assistance of the Palau Department of Natural Resources, we also interviewed fishermen and knowledgeable residents about dugong abundance, distribution, mortality, and natural history. Surveys were conducted from 19 through 26 August, using a Cessna 206high-wing airplane flown at an altitude of 150 to 300 m and an airspeed of about 170 km/h. An observer sat in each rear seat, and a third observer, who also navigated and recorded the data directly onto maps, sat in the right front seat. Small animals close to another dugong were considered calves. The survey route, based on that of Brownell et al. (19Sl), covered much of the approximately 1,380 sq km of dugong habitat within the archipelago. The islands are surrounded by very deep water, which restricts dugong habitat to lagoon areas within about 3 km of shore. Surveys were flown about 0.5 km offshore and the same distance inside the fringing reefs, with transects about 1 km apart across the larger lagoons. The coast was divided into the same 12 segments used by Brownell et al. (1981) (Fig. 1). However, the area outside the western fringing reef was not surveyed because no dugongs were sighted there in either1977 or 1978. We surveyed the entire archipelago twice and carried out replicated surveys of the lagoon areas and Malakal Harbor, which had been used by relatively large numbers of dugongs in 1977 and 1978 (Table 1). The total survey time was 15 h.265Help Volumes Main Menu

Marine Mammal Science↗
USGS2006

Movements, home range, and territories of male sea otters off central California

Sixty male sea otters ( Enhydra lutris ) were tagged on the rear flippers with colored tags. Of these, 46 (77%) were resighted. Movements of 127 km were documented for adults and 187 km for subadults. Adults maintained breeding territories that averaged 40.3 ha ( n = 10, SE = 4.0). They returned to the same territory seasonally for up to seven consecutive years. Territorial males moved from areas of high male abundance to areas of high female abundance on a seasonal basis. During the winter, 74% of adult males left breeding areas and joined concentrations of males located near the ends of the range. Thirty percent of the subadult males were observed in male groups near the extremities of the range. During the summer and fall, the density of adult males (15/1,000 ha) and adult male to independent otter (non-pup) ratio (1:5) in female areas was highest. The number of adult males in areas of female abundance was inversely related to the number of dependent pups, perhaps because when pup numbers are low (late summer and fall) the number of estrous females is high. Subadult males may remain in female areas on a year round basis until their second or third year. However, they were not generally associated with adult females.

California↗
USGS2006

An epizootic of Florida manatees associated with a dinoflagellate bloom

Over a 10-wk period in early 1982, 39 Florida manatees ( Trichechus manatus latirostris ) were found dead in the lower Caloosahatchee River and nearby waters of southwestern Florida. Two were killed by boats. The remainder showed no evidence of trauma. Lesions indicative of infectious agents were not identified, and bacteriological and contaminant residue findings were unremarkable. Nonspecific lesions of congestion and hemorrhage were identified in brain tissue. Numerous reports were also received of manatee morbidity. Some distressed manatees showed no biochemical lesions in clinical analyses of blood samples and recovered quickly. Timing of manatee illnesses coincided with fish and double-crested cormorant ( Phalacrocorax auritus ) mortality and morbidity. A widespread bloom of the dinoflagellate red tide organism ( Gymnodinium breve ) also coincided with these incidents. G. breve produces potent neurotoxins (brevetoxins). Circumstantial evidence links these events, and possible routes of exposure may include ingestion of filter-feeding ascidians. Ecological conditions that magnified the extent of the epizootic included an early dispersal of manatees into the area from a nearby winter aggregation site and unusually high salinities that facilitated the inshore spread of the red tide bloom. Management responses to future episodes of red tide in manatee areas are suggested.

Marine Mammal Science↗
USGS2006

Distribution patterns of individually identifiable West Indian manatees ( Trichechus manatus ) in Florida

Photographs of distinctively scarred manatees ( Trichechus manatus ) were taken at aggregation sites throughout Florida and assembled into a catalog for identifying individuals. Resightings of known manatees in different years or at different locations enabled us to document site fidelity and long-distance movements. Of the 891 individuals included in the catalog as of August 1986, 470 (53%) were resighted at least once. We documented 219 cases of seasonal returns to specific aggregation sites and 98 instances of movements between areas. Movements in excess of 820 km were documented for individuals on the east coast of Florida. Rapid movements south during early winter, as well as northerly spring movements, verify a seasonal migration pattern for many individuals along Florida's east coast. The wide-ranging migratory habits of manatees in Florida must be considered if meaningful management strategies are to be developed and implemented.

Florida↗
USGS2006

Reproductive characteristics of female sea otters

Several important aspects of reproduction in the female sea otter, such as gestation, pupping frequency, period of pup dependency, and annual pupping rate, were unclear when this study was begun. We present data from 75 tagged adult females that indicate gestation is variable, but on average is about 6 months, the length of pup dependency is 6 mo, thus the pupping interval is usually 12–13 mo. Most females breed for the first time in their fifth year of life. About 85–90% of adult females pup in a given year.

Alaska, California↗
USGS2006

Experimental recovery of sea otter carcasses at Kodiak Island, Alaska, following the Exxon Valdez oil spill

ound, Alaska, spilling approximately 11 million barrels of crude oil. Oil was deposited on beaches nearly 700 km from the spill site (Galt and Payton 1990, Piatt et al. 1990), affecting thousands of hectares of sea otter (Enhydra lutris) habitat. Two of the principal limitations in determining the initial effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on sea otter populations were a lack of recent population data, and a lack of information on the proportion of the total number of sea otters killed by the spill that were actually recovered. ound, Alaska, spilling approximately 11 million barrels of crude oil. Oil was deposited on beaches nearly 700 km from the spill site (Galt and Payton 1990, Piatt et al. 1990), affecting thousands of hectares of sea otter (Enhydra lutris) habitat. Two of the principal limitations in determining the initial effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on sea otter populations were a lack of recent population data, and a lack of information on the proportion of the total number of sea otters killed by the spill that were actually recovered. On 24 March 1989, the T/V Exxon Valdez ran aground in Prince William Sound, Alaska, spilling approximately 11 million barrels of crude oil. Oil was deposited on beaches nearly 700 km from the spill site (Galt and Payton 1990, Piatt et al . 1990), affecting thousands of hectares of sea otter ( Enhydra lutris ) habitat. Two of the principal limitations in determining the initial effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on sea otter populations were a lack of recent population data, and a lack of information on the proportion of the total number of sea otters killed by the spill that were actually recovered. In late April and early May oil spread to the Kodiak Archipelago. With the oil came wildlife rescue, beach cleanup, and other spill-response activities including searches for dead birds and mammals. We took this opportunity to assess experimentally the recovery of sea otter carcasses in the Kodiak Island area. Specifically, we were interested in the proportion of the total number of dead sea otters the recovered carcasses represented.

Alaska↗
USGS2006

Detection of sea otters in boat-based surveys of Prince William Sound, Alaska

Boat-based surveys have been commonly used to monitor sea otter populations, but there has been little quantitative work to evaluate detection biases that may affect these surveys. We used ground-based observers to investigate sea otter detection probabilities in a boat-based survey of Prince William Sound, Alaska. We estimated that 30% of the otters present on surveyed transects were not detected by boat crews. Approximately half (53%) of the undetected otters were missed because the otters left the transects, apparently in response to the approaching boat. Unbiased estimates of detection probabilities will be required for obtaining unbiased population estimates from boat-based surveys of sea otters. Therefore, boat-based surveys should include methods to estimate sea otter detection probabilities under the conditions specific to each survey. Unbiased estimation of detection probabilities with ground-based observers requires either that the ground crews detect all of the otters in observed subunits, or that there are no errors in determining which crews saw each detected otter. Ground-based observer methods may be appropriate in areas where nearly all of the sea otter habitat is potentially visible from ground-based vantage points.

Alaska↗
USGS2006

Investigating trophic relationships of pinnipeds in Alaska and Washington using stable isotope ratios of nitrogen and carbon

We measured stable-nitrogen (δ 15 N) and stable-carbon (δ 13 C) isotope ratios in muscle and hair from 7 northern fur seals ( Callorhinus ursinus ) from the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, and 27 Steller sea lions ( Eumetopias jubatus ), and 14 harbor seals ( Phoca vitulina ) from the Gulf of Alaska and coast of Washington State, in order to contrast dietary information derived from isotopic vs. available conventional dietary studies. Stable-nitrogen-isotope analysis of muscle revealed that harbor seals were enriched over sea lions (mean δ 15 N = 18.6‰ vs. 17.5‰) which were in turn enriched over northern fur seals (mean δ 15 N = 16.6‰). Trophic segregation among these species likely results primarily from differential reliance on herring ( Clupea harengus ), Atka mackerel ( Pleurogrammus monopterygius ), and large vs. small walleye pollock ( Theregra chalcogramma ). According to their δ 15 N values, adult male Steller sea lions showed a higher trophic position than adult females (mean δ 15 N: 18.0‰ vs. 17.2‰), whereas adult female northern fur seals were trophically higher than juvenile male fur seals (mean δ 15 N: 16.5‰ vs. 15.0‰). Each of these observed differences likely resulted from differential reliance on squid or differences in the size range of pollock consumed. Three northern fur seal pups showed higher δ 15 N enrichment over adults (mean 17.7‰ vs. 15.8‰) due to their reliance on their mother's milk. Stable-carbon isotope measurements of hair revealed a cline toward more negative values with latitude. Segregation in hair δ 13 C between Steller sea lions and harbor seals off the coast of Washington (mean δ 13 C: -13.6‰ vs. - 15.0‰) reflected the greater association of harbor seals with freshwater input from the Columbia River. Our study demonstrates the utility of the stable isotope approach to augment conventional dietary analyses of pinnipeds and other marine mammals.

Alaska, Washington↗
USGS2006

Status of sea otters (Enhydra lutris) in Mexico

Sea otters in North America historically were distributed from the Near Islands in the western Aleutian Archipelago to about Punta Morro Hermoso on the Pacific coast of Baja California (Kenyon 1969, Rodriguez-Jaramillo and Gendron 1996). During the 18th and 19th centuries they were so common that they formed the basis for a lucrative fur trade (Ogden 1941), but by the early 1900s they were exploited to extinction in Baja California (Kenyon 1369).

Marine Mammal Science↗
USGS2006

Sea otter mortality from the Exxon Valdez spill: Evaluation of an estimate from boat-based surveys

The Exxon Valadez oil spill killed large numbers of sea otters ( Enhydra lutris ) in Prince William Sound (PWS), Alaska, where the spill originated, as well as within the oil’s path along the coasts of the Kenai Peninsula and Kodiak Island. Sea otters attracted particular attention after the spill due to their public appeal (Batten 1990) and known vulnerability to oil (Costa and Kooyman 1982, Siniff et al. 1982, Davis et al. 1988, Williams et al. 1988). Extensive efforts were made to rescue and rehabilitate oiled otters at a resulting cost of ca. $80,000 per animal (Estes 1991). The argument that otters lost in the spill should be similarly valued made the estimate of mortality a matter of substantial concern to those involved in spill-related litigation or out-of-court settlements.

Alaska↗
USGS2006

Generic names of northern and southern fur seals (Mammalia: Otariidae)

We have resolved a nomenclatural problem discovered during research on the northern fur seal that concerns the correct generic name for this taxon and for fur seals of the Southern Hemisphere. The unfortunate practice by some 19th-century authors to use names in their Latinized form but to date them from their first appearance as French common names led to the use of Arctocepbalus for southern fur seals when the name correctly applies to the northern fur seal, known today as Callorbinus ursinus . However, Arctocepbalus and Callorbinus are antedated by Otoes G. Fischer, 1817, which is the earliest available generic name for the fur seal of the northern Pacific. The earliest available generic name for southern fur seals is Halarctus Gill, 1866. To avoid the confusion that would result from replacing the currently used generic names with those required by strict adherence to the Principle of Priority, we have petitioned the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature to preserve Arctocepbalus and Callorbinus for the southern and northern fur seals, respectively.

Marine Mammal Science↗
USGS2006

Response of Pacific walruses to disturbances from capture and handling activities at a haul-out in Bristol Bay, Alaska

Observations were made on hems of the Pacific walrus (Odobenus rosmarus divergens) to study their response during the capturing and handling of adult males in summer 1995 at a haul-out at Cape Peirce in southwestern Alaska. Three behaviors (alertness, displacement, and dispersal) were quantified from 16 capture sessions. Herd sizes ranged from 622 to 5,289 walruses. Handling of an immobilized walrus consisted of attempts to attach telemetry devices to the tusks and collect various biological samples. Handling activities resulted in an average of about 10-fold or greater levels of behavior in alertness, displacement, and dispersal than during precapture and darting periods. High levels of behavior usually occurred within the first 45 min of handling. In 8 of 10 capture sessions, walruses returned to predisturbance levels of behavior within 40 min of cessation of the handling disturbance. Alertness and displacement were moderately and negatively correlated with herd size during the handling period, which may reflect an effect of a threshold distance from the point of disturbance to responding individuals. Observations of walruses tagged with VHF radio transmitters indicated that the activities from a given capture session did not preclude tagged walruses from using the haul-out over a subsequent 11-wk monitoring period. Moreover, non-tagged walruses continued to extensively use the haul-out during and after the period in which capture sessions were conducted.

Marine Mammal Science↗
USGS2006

Interactions between northern elephant seals and vehicles near Point Piedras Blancas, California

Northern elephant seals, Mirounga angustirostris , were nearly extirpated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. However, they have recovered to the point where they are now locally abundant (Stewart e t al. 1994). Stimulated by the report of human/northern elephant seal interactions in Baja California Sur (Webster and Baird 1998), we report here on an unusual terrestrial example of the increasing conflict between the growing populations of these two species in central California.

California↗