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USGS2013

Sources and characteristics of organic matter in the Clackamas River, Oregon, related to the formation of disinfection by-products in treated drinking water

This study characterized the amount and quality of organic matter in the Clackamas River, Oregon, to gain an understanding of sources that contribute to the formation of chlorinated and brominated disinfection by-products (DBPs), focusing on regulated DBPs in treated drinking water from two direct-filtration treatment plants that together serve approximately 100,000 customers. The central hypothesis guiding this study was that natural organic matter leaching out of the forested watershed, in-stream growth of benthic algae, and phytoplankton blooms in the reservoirs contribute different and varying proportions of organic carbon to the river. Differences in the amount and composition of carbon derived from each source affects the types and concentrations of DBP precursors entering the treatment plants and, as a result, yield varying DBP concentrations and species in finished water. The two classes of DBPs analyzed in this study-trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs)-form from precursors within the dissolved and particulate pools of organic matter present in source water. The five principal objectives of the study were to (1) describe the seasonal quantity and character of organic matter in the Clackamas River; (2) relate the amount and composition of organic matter to the formation of DBPs; (3) evaluate sources of DBP precursors in the watershed; (4) assess the use of optical measurements, including in-situ fluorescence, for estimating dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations and DBP formation; and (5) assess the removal of DBP precursors during treatment by conducting treatability "jar-test" experiments at one of the treatment plants. Data collection consisted of (1) monthly sampling of source and finished water at two drinking-water treatment plants; (2) event-based sampling in the mainstem, tributaries, and North Fork Reservoir; and (3) in-situ continuous monitoring of fluorescent dissolved organic matter (FDOM), turbidity, chlorophyll- a , and other constituents to continuously track source-water conditions in near real-time. Treatability tests were conducted during the four event-based surveys to determine the effectiveness of coagulant and powdered activated carbon (PAC) on the removal of DBP precursors. Sample analyses included DOC, total particulate carbon (TPC), total and dissolved nutrients, absorbance and fluorescence spectroscopy, and, for regulated DBPs, concentrations of THMs and HAAs in finished water and laboratory-based THM and HAA formation potentials (THMFP and HAAFP, respectively) for source water and selected locations throughout the watershed. The results of this study may not be typical given the record and near record amounts of precipitation that occurred during spring that produced streamflow much higher than average in 2010-11. Although there were algal blooms, lower concentrations of chlorophyll- a were observed in the water column during the study period compared to historical data. Concentrations of DBPs in finished (treated) water averaged 0.024 milligrams per liter (mg/L) for THMs and 0.022 mg/L for HAAs; maximum values were about 0.040 mg/L for both classes of DBPs. Although DBP concentrations were somewhat higher within the distribution system, none of the samples collected for this study or for the quarterly compliance monitoring by the water utilities exceeded levels permissible under existing U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) regulations: 0.080 mg/L for THMs and 0.060 mg/L for HAAs. DOC concentrations were generally low in the Clackamas River, typically about 1.0-1.5 mg/L. Concentrations in the mainstem occasionally increased to nearly 2.5 mg/L during storms; DOC concentrations in tributaries were sometimes much higher (up to 7.8 mg/L). The continuous in-situ FDOM measurements indicated sharp rises in DOC concentrations in the mainstem following rainfall events; concentrations were relatively stable during summer base flow. Even though the first autumn storm mobilized appreciable quantities of carbon, higher concentrations of DBPs in finished water were observed 3-weeks later, after the ground was saturated from additional rainfall. The majority of the DOC in the lower Clackamas River appears to originate from the upper basin, suggesting terrestrial carbon was commonly the dominant source. Lower-basin tributaries typically contained the highest concentrations of DOC and DBP precursors and contributed substantially to the overall loads in the mainstem during storms. During low-flow periods, tributaries were not major sources of DOC or DBP precursors to the Clackamas River. Although the dissolved fraction of organic carbon contributed the majority of DBP precursors, at times the particulate fraction (inorganic sediment and organic particles including detritus and algal material) contributed a substantial fraction of DBP precursors. Considering just the main-stem sites, on average, 10 percent of THMFP and 32 percent of HAAFP were attributed to particulate carbon. This finding suggests water-treatment methods that remove particles prior to chlorination would reduce finished-water DBP concentrations to some degree. Overall, concentrations of THM and HAA precursors were closely linked to DOC concentrations; laboratory DBP formation potentials (DBPFPs) clearly showed that THMFP and HAAFP were greatest in the downstream tributaries that contained elevated carbon concentrations. However, carbon-normalized "specific" formation potentials for THMs and HAAs (STHMFP and SHAAFP, respectively) revealed changes in carbon character over time that affected the two types of DBP classes differently. HAA precursors were elevated in waters containing aromatic-rich soil-derived material arising from forested areas. In contrast, THM precursors were associated with carbon having a lower aromatic content; highest STHMFP occurred in autumn 2011 in the mainstem from North Fork Reservoir downstream to LO DWTP. This pattern suggests the potential for a link between THM precursors and algal-derived carbon. The highest STHMFP value was measured within North Fork Reservoir, indicating reservoir derived carbon may be important for this class of DBPs. Weak correlations between STHMFP and SHAAFP emphasize that precursor sources for these types of DBPs may be different. This highlights not only that different locations within the watershed produce carbon with different reactivity (specific DBPFP), but also that different management approaches for each class of DBP precursors could be required for control. Treatability tests conducted on source water during four basin-wide surveys demonstrated that an average of about 40 percent of DOC can be removed by coagulation. While the decrease in THMFP following coagulation was similar to DOC, the decrease in HAAFP was much greater (approximately 70 percent), indicating coagulation is particularly effective at removing HAA precursors'likely because of the aromatic nature of the carbon associated with HAA precursors. Several findings from this study have direct implications for managing drinking-water resources and for providing useful information that may help improve treatment-plant operations. For example, the use of in-situ fluorometers that measure FDOM provided an excellent proxy for DOC concentration in this system and revealed short-term, rapid changes in DOC concentration during storm events. In addition, the strong correlation between FDOM values measured in-situ and HAA5 concentrations in finished water may permit estimation of continuous HAA concentrations, as was done here. As part of this study, multiple in-situ FDOM sensors were deployed continuously and in real-time to characterize the composition of dissolved organic matter. Although the initial results were promising, additional research and engineering developments will be needed to demonstrate the full utility of these sensors for this purpose. In conclusion, although DBPFPs were strongly correlated to DOC concentration, some DBPs formed from particulate carbon, including terrestrial leaf material and algal material such as planktonic species of blue-green algae and sloughed filaments, stalks, and cells of benthic algae. Different precursor sources in the watershed were evident from the data, suggesting specific actions may be available to address some of these sources. In-situ measurements of FDOM proved to be an excellent proxy for DOC concentration as well as HAA formation during treatment, which suggests further development and refinement of these sensors have the potential to provide real-time information about complex watershed processes to operators at the drinking-water treatment plants. Follow-up studies could examine the relative roles that terrestrial and algal sources have on the DBP precursor pool to better understand how watershed-management activities may be affecting the transport of these compounds to Clackamas River drinking-water intakes. Given the low concentrations of algae in the water column during this study, additional surveys during more typical river conditions could provide a more complete understanding of how algae contribute DBP precursors. Further development of FDOM-sensor technology can improve our understanding of carbon dynamics in the river and how concentrations may be trending over time. This study was conducted in collaboration with Clackamas River Water and the City of Lake Oswego water utilities. Other research partners included Oregon Health and Science University in Hillsboro, Oregon, Alexin Laboratory in Tigard, Oregon, U.S. Geological Survey National Research Program Laboratory in Denver, Colorado, and the U.S. Geological Survey Water Science Centers in Portland, Oregon, and Sacramento, California. This project was supported with funding from Clackamas River Water, City of Lake Oswego, the U.S. Geological Survey, and the Water Research Foundation.

Oregon↗

USGS2016

Changes between early development (1930–60) and recent (2005–15) groundwater-level altitudes and dissolved-solids and nitrate concentrations In and near Gaines, Terry, and Yoakum Counties, Texas

Llano Estacado Underground Water Conservation District, Sandy Land Underground Water Conservation District, and South Plains Underground Water Conservation District manage groundwater resources in a part of west Texas near the Texas-New Mexico State line. Declining groundwater levels have raised concerns about the amount of available groundwater in the study area and the potential for water-quality changes resulting from dewatering and increased vertical groundwater movement between adjacent water-bearing units. In 2014, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with Llano Estacado Underground Water Conservation District, Sandy Land Underground Water District, and South Plains Underground Water Conservation District, began a multiphase project to develop a regional conceptual model of the hydrogeologic framework and geochemistry of the Ogallala, Edwards-Trinity, and Dockum aquifers. The Ogallala aquifer is the shallowest aquifer in the study area and is the primary source of water for agriculture and municipal supply in the area. This report describes the results of the first phase of the study, during which groundwater-level-altitude and selected water-quality data from wells in and near Gaines, Terry, and Yoakum Counties were compiled and evaluated for the Ogallala, Edwards-Trinity, and Dockum aquifers. Readily available digital groundwater data for the study area (geologic, well-construction, groundwater-level-altitude, and selected water-quality data) were compiled to assess temporal and spatial changes in groundwater resources from early development (1930–60) to recent (2005–15) periods. Pertinent data were compiled from available sources for the study area and for a 5-mile buffer area around the study area to prevent gridding errors near the boundary. Geologic and well-construction data were used to determine or verify the aquifer in which each well was completed. Depending on the available data, the aquifer assignment (aquifer in which a given well was completed) was determined on the basis of the following criteria, in order of priority: (1) the screened or open interval(s) of the well, (2) the total depth of the well, or (3) the completed aquifer reported for a given well by the data source. Potentiometric-surface maps were created to depict changes in groundwater-level altitudes for the Ogallala and Edwards-Trinity aquifers. In addition to comparing groundwater-level altitudes and water quality from the early development and recent periods, hydrographs of groundwater-level altitudes were created, and changes in water quality for various periods between 1930 and 2015 were evaluated. Variance maps for each groundwater-level-altitude grid were used to evaluate the spatial data coverage and to identify areas with higher uncertainty because of spatially limited data availability for some of the aquifers. For this report, existing dissolved-solids and nitrate concentration data were compiled and assessed for evidence of spatial patterns and changes over time. These data were compiled for samples collected from wells completed in the Ogallala, Edwards-Trinity, or Dockum aquifer during the early development period (1930–60) or the recent period (2005–15); temporal and spatial variations were assessed from depictions of the measured concentration values. Dissolved-solids and nitrate concentrations measured in samples from three wells completed in the Ogallala aquifer (well identifiers 11524, 11824, and 11825) for which long-term monitoring was done for various periods between 1950 and 2015 were also compiled and analyzed. Groundwater-level altitudes of the Ogallala aquifer are generally higher in the northwestern part of the study area and lower in the southeastern part of the study area, varying by as much as 800 feet. Groundwater flow paths for the early development period generally trend from northwest to southeast across the study area. Compared to those for the early development period, local features in the potentiometric surface for the recent period are more pronounced, likely as a result of additional data coverage, increased groundwater withdrawals, and local flow paths that are more variable. For the Edwards-Trinity aquifer potentiometric-surface map of the recent period, a general northwest to southeast flow gradient was also evident, with some subtle differences compared to the early development period. The Edwards-Trinity aquifer water-level-altitude change map between the early development and recent periods indicated similar spatial trends as in the Ogallala aquifer and indicated that groundwater-level altitudes declined over a large amount of the area for which sufficient data were available for reliably mapping changes. During the recent period, median dissolved-solids concentrations of less than 1,000 milligrams per liter (mg/L) were predominantly measured in the western part of the study area, and median concentrations of more than 1,000 mg/L were predominantly measured in the eastern part of the study area. A general pattern of increasing nitrate concentrations from west to the northeast was evident in the study area. Nitrate concentrations measured in samples collected from 16 wells completed in the Ogallala aquifer for the recent period were equal to or greater than 10 mg/L, the primary drinking water standard for finished drinking water.

Texas↗

USGS2016

Simulation of deep ventilation in Crater Lake, Oregon, 1951–2099

The frequency of deep ventilation events in Crater Lake, a caldera lake in the Oregon Cascade Mountains, was simulated in six future climate scenarios, using a 1-dimensional deep ventilation model (1DDV) that was developed to simulate the ventilation of deep water initiated by reverse stratification and subsequent thermobaric instability. The model was calibrated and validated with lake temperature data collected from 1994 to 2011. Wind and air temperature data from three general circulation models and two representative concentration pathways were used to simulate the change in lake temperature and the frequency of deep ventilation events in possible future climates. The lumped model air2water was used to project lake surface temperature, a required boundary condition for the lake model, based on air temperature in the future climates. The 1DDV model was used to simulate daily water temperature profiles through 2099. All future climate scenarios projected increased water temperature throughout the water column and a substantive reduction in the frequency of deep ventilation events. The least extreme scenario projected the frequency of deep ventilation events to decrease from about 1 in 2 years in current conditions to about 1 in 3 years by 2100. The most extreme scenario considered projected the frequency of deep ventilation events to be about 1 in 7.7 years by 2100. All scenarios predicted that the temperature of the entire water column will be greater than 4 °C for increasing lengths of time in the future and that the conditions required for thermobaric instability induced mixing will become rare or non-existent. The disruption of deep ventilation by itself does not provide a complete picture of the potential ecological and water quality consequences of warming climate to Crater Lake. Estimating the effect of warming climate on deep water oxygen depletion and water clarity will require careful modeling studies to combine the physical mixing processes affected by the atmosphere with the multitude of factors affecting the growth of algae and corresponding water clarity.

Oregon↗

USGS2013

Detection of environmental DNA of bigheaded carps in samples collected from selected locations in the St. Croix River and in the Mississippi River

The use of molecular methods, such as the detection of environmental deoxyribonucleic acid (eDNA), have become an increasingly popular tool in surveillance programs that monitor for the presence of invasive species in aquatic systems. One early application of these methods in aquatic systems was surveillance for DNA of Asian carps (specifically bighead carp Hypophthalmichthys nobilis and silver carp H. molitrix) in water samples taken from the Chicago Area Waterway System. The ability to identify DNA of a species in an environmental sample presents a potentially powerful tool because these sensitive analyses can presumably detect the presence of DNA in water even when the species is not abundant or are difficult to catch or monitor with traditional gear. Prior to research presented in this report, an initial eDNA surveillance effort was completed in selected locations in the Upper Mississippi and St. Croix Rivers in 2011 after the capture of a bighead carp in the St. Croix River near Prescott, WI. Data presented in this report were developed to duplicate the 2011 monitoring results from the Upper Mississippi and St. Croix Rivers and to provide critical insight into the technique to inform future work in these locations. We specifically sought to understand the potential confounding effects of other pathways of eDNA movement (e.g., fish-eating birds, watercraft) on the variation in background DNA by collecting water samples from (1) sites within the St. Croix River and the upper Mississippi River where the DNA of silver carp was previously detected, (2) sites considered to be free of Asian carp, and (3) a site known to have a large population of Asian carp. We also sought to establish a baseline Asian carp eDNA signature to which future eDNA sampling efforts could be compared. All samples taken as part of this effort were processed using conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) according to procedures outlined in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Quality Assurance Project Plan with minor deviations designed to enhance the rigor of our data. Presence of DNA in PCR-positive samples was confirmed by Sanger sequencing (forward and reverse) and sequences were considered positive only if sequences (forward and reverse) of ≥150 base pairs had a match of ≥95% to those of published sequences for bighead carp or silver carp. The DNA of bighead carp and silver carp was not detected in environmental samples collected above and below St. Croix Falls Dam on the St. Croix River, above and below the Coon Rapids Dam and below Lock and Dam 1 on the Upper Mississippi River, and from two negative control lakes, Square Lake and Lake Riley. The DNA of silver carp was detected in environmental samples collected below Lock and Dam 19 at Keokuk, Iowa, a reach of the river with high silver carp abundance. The portion (68%) of environmental samples taken below Lock and Dam 19 that were determined to contain the DNA of silver carp was similar to that reported in the scientific literature for other abundant species. The DNA of bighead carp, however, was not detected in environmental samples collected below Lock and Dam 19, a reach of the river known to have bighead carp. Previous reported detections of the DNA of silver carp in samples collected in 2011 were not replicated in this study. Additional analyses are planned for the DNA extracted from the samples collected in 2012. Those analyses may provide additional information regarding the lack of amplification of bighead carp DNA and the lengths of the sequences of silver carp DNA present in samples taken below Lock and Dam 19. These additional analyses may help inform the use of eDNA monitoring in large, complex systems like the Mississippi River.

Minnesota, Wisconsin↗

USGS1995

Land use and water use in the Antelope Valley, California

Urban land use and water use in the Antelope Valley, California, have increased significantly since development of the valley began in the late 1800's.. Ground water has been a major source of water in this area because of limited local surface-water resources. Ground-water pumpage is reported to have increased from about 29,000 acre-feet in 1919 to about 400,000 acre-feet in the 1950's. Completion of the California Aqueduct to this area in the early 1970's conveyed water from the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, about 400 miles to the north. Declines in groundwater levels and increased costs of electrical power in the 1970's resulted in a reduction in the quantity of ground water that was pumped annually for irrigation uses. Total annual reported ground-water pumpage decreased to a low of about 53,200 acre-feet in 1983 and increased to about 91,700 acre-feet in 1991 as a result of rapid urban development and the 1987-92 drought. This increased urban development, in combination with several years of drought, renewed concern about a possible return to extensive depletion of ground-water storage and increased land subsidence. Increased water demands are expected to continue as a result of increased urban development. Water-demand forecasts in 1980 for the Antelope Valley indicated that total annual water demand by 2020 was expected to be about 250,000 acre-feet, with agricultural demand being about 65 percent of this total. In 1990, total water demand was projected to be about 175,000 acre-feet by 2010; however, agricultural water demand was expected to account for only 37 percent of the total demand. New and existing land- and water-use data were collected and compiled during 1992-93 to identify present and historical land and water uses. In 1993, preliminary forecasts for total water demand by 2010 ranged from about 127,500 to 329,000 acre-feet. These wide-ranging estimates indicate that forecasts can change with time as factors that affect water demand change and different forecasting methods are used. The forecasts using the MWD_MAIN (Metropolitan Water District of Southern California Municipal and Industrial Needs) water-demand forecasting system yielded the largest estimates of water demand. These forecasts were based on projections of population growth and other socioeconomic variables. Initial forecasts using the MWD_MAIN forecasting system commonly are considered "interim" or preliminary. Available historical and future socioeconomic data required for the forecasting system are limited for this area. Decisions on local water-resources demand management may be made by members of the Antelope Valley Water Group and other interested parties based on this report, other studies, their best judgement, and cumulative knowledge of local conditions. Potential water-resource management actions in the Antelope Valley include (1) increasing artificial ground-water recharge when excess local runoff (or imported water supplies) are available; (2) implementing water-conservation best-management practices; and (3) optimizing ground-water pumpage throughout the basin.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS2011

High throughput computing: a solution for scientific analysis

Public land management agencies continually face resource management problems that are exacerbated by climate warming, land-use change, and other human activities. As the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Fort Collins Science Center (FORT) works with managers in U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) agencies and other federal, state, and private entities, researchers are finding that the science needed to address these complex ecological questions across time and space produces substantial amounts of data. The additional data and the volume of computations needed to analyze it require expanded computing resources well beyond single- or even multiple-computer workstations. To meet this need for greater computational capacity, FORT investigated how to resolve the many computational shortfalls previously encountered when analyzing data for such projects. Our objectives included finding a solution that would: harness existing Computer Processing Units (CPUs) when they're idle to run multiple jobs concurrently, which reduces the overall processing time without requiring additional hardware; offer an effective, centralized job-management system; handle job failures due to hardware, software, or network interruptions (obviating the need to manually resubmit the job after each stoppage); be affordable; and most importantly, allow us to complete very large, complex analyses that otherwise would not even be possible. In short, we envisioned a job-management system that would take advantage of unused FORT CPUs within a local area network (LAN) to effectively distribute and run highly complex analytical processes. What we found was a solution that uses High Throughput Computing (HTC) and High Performance Computing (HPC) systems to do exactly that (Figure 1).

Report↗

USGS1998

Intercomparison of principal hydrometric instruments; Third phase, Evaluation of ultrasonic velocity meters for flow measurement in streams, canals, and estuaries

As part of the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) project Intercomparison of Principal Hydrometric Instruments , Third Phase , a questionnaire was prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) on the application of Ultrasonic Velocity Meters (UVM's) for flow measurement in streams , canals , and estuaries . In 1996, this questionnaire was distributed internationally by the WMO and USGS, and distributed within the United States by the USGS. Completed questionnaires were returned by 26 agencies in 7 countries (Canada, France, Germany, The Netherlands, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States). The completed questionnaires described geometric and streamflow conditions, system configurations, and reasons for applying UVM systems for 260 sites, thus providing information on the applicability of UVM systems throughout the world. The completed questionnaires also provided information on operational issues such as (1) methods used to determine and verify UVM ratings, (2) methods used to determine the mean flow velocity for UVM systems, (3) operational reliability of UVM systems, (4) methods to estimate missing data, (5) common problems with UVM systems and guidelines to mitigate these problems, and (6) personnel training issues. The completed questionnaires also described a few unique or novel applications of UVM systems. In addition to summarizing the completed questionnaires, this report includes a brief overview of UVM application and operation, and a short summary of current (1998) information from UVM system manufacturers regarding system cost and capabilities. On the basis of the information from the completed questionnaires and provided by the manufacturers, the general applicability of UVM systems is discussed. In the finalisation of this report the financial support provided by the US National Committee for Scientific Hydrology is gratefully acknowledged.

Report↗

USGS2021

Changes in forest connectivity from beech bark disease in Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan

Within the forests of Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, biologists are trying to understand the effects beech bark disease has on wildlife species, especially species that need forest connectivity to thrive. This project used aerial imagery collected in 2005, shortly after beech bark disease infestation, and satellite imagery from 2018. The 2018 imagery represents present day conditions and was used to locate forest canopy gaps through object-based image analysis. Forest canopy gaps were identified using the multiresolution segmentation algorithm within Trimble’s eCognition software. A time change analysis was completed to understand how the forest canopy had changed from 2005 to 2018. The analysis showed areas that had maintained forest canopy, maintained a forest canopy gap, created a new canopy gap (closed forest canopy in 2005 but open canopy gap in 2018), or created new forest canopy (open canopy gap in 2005 but closed forest canopy in 2018). There were 9,127 acres of forest canopy lost, and 72.8 percent of that lost canopy occurred in a forest type where Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. (American beech) is a common tree species. The datasets developed through this project can enhance knowledge of where canopy gaps exist and help place focus on certain areas for wildlife studies. In addition, these datasets can be used in future studies to monitor the health of the forest and conduct additional change analyses.

Michigan↗

USGS2014

Report of the committee on underground waters, 1938–39

In preparing the report of the Committee on Underground Waters of the Section of Hydrology for the final year of the triennium, it becomes evident that the collection of fundamental data relating to the hydrology of underground waters continues at a rate comparable to that maintained in the past few years, and perhaps even at an accelerated rate. Almost every extensive practical investigation of ground‐water supplies offers some opportunity for study of fundamental problems, in fact many of them require such fundamental study. With a larger number of investigations in progress, and with fairly liberal appropriations much new and valuable information is being discovered. Some idea of the increase in ground‐water studies since the organization of the Section of Hydrology may be given by a few statistics on the work of the Division of Ground‐Water of the Federal Geological Survey, which does the largest amount of ground‐water work in the United States. In 1932 the Division worked on about 50 projects in 25 States, in 15 of which and in Hawaii the investigations were made in cooperation with States, or other local Governmental agencies. During the current fiscal year work has been completed, or is in progress, on about 100 investigations in 35 States, Hawaii, and the Virgin Islands. The number of States cooperating on the work has increased to 24. During the current fiscal year about \$375,000 will be spent for ground‐water investigations by the Federal Geological Survey and cooperating organizations, as compared to about $175,000 spent during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1932.

Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union↗

USGS2012

Profile measurements and data from the 2011 Optics, Acoustics, and Stress In Situ (OASIS) project at the Martha's Vineyard Coastal Observatory

This report documents data collected by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) for the Coastal Model Applications and Field Measurements project under the auspices of the U.S. Navy Office of Naval Research Optics, Acoustics, and Stress In Situ (OASIS) Project. The objective of the measurements was to relate optical and acoustic properties of suspended particles to changes in particle size, concentration, and vertical distribution in the bottom boundary layer near the seafloor caused by wave- and current-induced stresses. This information on the physics of particle resuspension and aggregation and light penetration and water clarity will help improve models of sediment transport, benthic primary productivity, and underwater visibility. There is well-established technology for acoustic profiling, but optical profiles are more difficult to obtain because of the rapid attenuation of light in water. A specially modified tripod with a moving arm was designed to solve this problem by moving instruments vertically in the bottom boundary layer, between the bottom and about 2 meters above the seafloor. The profiling arm was designed, built, and tested during spring and summer 2011 by a team of USGS scientists, engineers, and technicians. To accommodate power requirements and the large data files recorded by some of the optical instruments, the tripod was connected via underwater cable to the Martha's Vineyard Coastal Observatory, operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI). This afforded real-time Internet communication with the embedded computers aboard the tripod. Instruments were mounted on the profiling arm, and additional instruments were mounted elsewhere on the tripod and nearby on the seafloor. The tripod and a small mooring for a profiling current meter were deployed on September 17, 2011, at the Martha's Vineyard Coastal Observatory 12-meter-deep underwater node about 2 kilometers south of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts. Divers assisted in the deployment and cleaned the instrument surfaces on the tripod approximately once per week until the tripod and current meter were recovered on October 23, 2011. There was a range of wave and current conditions during the 36-day deployment, including the distant passage of Hurricane Ophelia, several moderate wave events, and a significant local gale that generated wave heights greater than 4 meters at the 12-meter site and knocked over the tripod 3 days before it was recovered. All but one of the instruments functioned well and provided complete datasets. The details of these data and the location of files containing the best basic version of the data are described in this report.

Massachusetts↗

USGS2017

Performance measures for a Mississippi River reintroduction into the forested wetlands of Maurepas Swamp

The use of freshwater diversions (river reintroductions) from the Mississippi River as a restoration tool to rehabilitate Louisiana coastal wetlands has been promoted widely since the first such diversion at Caernarvon became operational in the early 1990s. To date, aside from the Bonnet Carré Spillway (which is designed and operated for flood control), there are only four operational Mississippi River freshwater diversions (two gated structures and two siphons) in coastal Louisiana, and they all target salinity intrusion, shellfish management, and (or) the enhancement of the integrity of marsh habitat. River reintroductions carry small sediment loads for various design reasons, but they can be effective in delivering freshwater to combat saltwater intrusion and increase the delivery of nutrients and suspended fine-grained sediments to receiving wetlands. River reintroductions may be an ideal restoration tool for targeting coastal swamp forest habitat; much of the area of swamp forest habitat in coastal Louisiana is undergoing saltwater intrusion, high rates of submergence, and lack of riverine flow leading to reduced concentrations of important nutrients and suspended sediments, which sustain growth and regeneration, help to aerate swamp soils, and remove toxic compounds from the rhizosphere. The State of Louisiana Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority (CPRA) has made it a priority to establish a small freshwater river diversion into a coastal swamp forest located between Baton Rouge and New Orleans, Louisiana, to reintroduce Mississippi River water to Maurepas Swamp. While a full understanding of how a coastal swamp forest will respond to new freshwater loading through a Mississippi River reintroduction is unknown, this report provides guidance based on the available literature for establishing performance measures that can be used for evaluating the effectiveness of a Mississippi River reintroduction into the forested wetlands of Maurepas Swamp (project PO-29 of the Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection and Restoration Act) and aid in adaptive management of the project. PO-29 is a small river reintroduction in scope, and through its operation, it will provide information about the feasibility and reasonable expectations for future river reintroduction projects targeting coastal swamp forests in Louisiana. Located near Garyville, Louisiana, the Mississippi River reintroduction into Maurepas Swamp project is being designed to deliver a maximum flow of 57 cubic meters per second (m 3 /s) (or about 2,000 cubic feet per second [ft 3 /s]) directly from the river, but with a maximum flow through the outflow channel of 42 m 3 /s (or 1,500 ft 3 /s) available for at least half of the year. The river reintroduction will divert Mississippi River water through channelized flow and surface water to impact approximately 16,583 hectares (ha) of wetland habitat, much of which is swamp forest and swamp forest transitioning into marsh habitat. The Mississippi River reintroduction into Maurepas Swamp and associated outfall management features collectively should facilitate connectivity of water between the Mississippi River and the entire project area. At any given location, hydrologic connectivity should occur at intervals between twice yearly and once per decade, and hydrologic management must allow the potential for water drawdowns to foster tree regeneration every 3–13 years. The river reintroduction is also anticipated to maintain salinity in swamp forests dominated by Taxodium distichum (baldcypress) to less than 1.3 practical salinity units (psu) and maintain salinity in mixed baldcypress and Nyssa aquatica (water tupelo) swamp forests to less than 0.8 psu. The river reintroduction should promote soil surface elevation gains of 8–9 millimeters per year (mm/yr) (range, 4.9–12.1 mm/yr) to offset relative sea-level rise and keep total river water nitrate (NO 3 - ) loading into Maurepas Swamp to about 11.25 grams (g) of nitrogen (N) per square meter per year (m -2 yr -1 ) (range, 7.1–15.4 g N m -2 yr -1 ) to promote near complete uptake of NO 3 - by the vegetation in the receiving wetlands and reduce impacts to water quality in adjacent and connected water ways (for example, Blind River) and Lake Maurepas. With these performance measures maintained over time, we further expect swamp forest stands to realize improvements in stand density index of as much as 30–45 percent of maximum values for the stand type while maintaining an overstory leaf area index of 2.0–2.9 square meters per square meter or higher as swamp forests recover from decades of low flow, saltwater intrusion, reduced nutrients, and surface elevation deficits associated with isolation from the Mississippi River. Associated with these performance measures are two major uncertainties: (1) an assumption that we can rely on existing data, literature, and modeling from coastal swamp forests to establish these performance measures and (2) an unknown time frame for evaluating these performance measures. Some performance measures can be assessed quickly, such as those associated with hydrology and nutrient uptake. Some performance measures, such as changes in soil surface elevation and forest structural integrity, could take longer to assess. Once performance measures are assessed across different time scales, however, adjustments to operations of the Mississippi River reintroduction into Maurepas Swamp can be swift. The proposed performance measures are ideal targets, mostly without specific consideration of practical, operational constraints. The measures are intended to be the basis by which adaptive management of the diversion structures can be evaluated. The measures are defined without regard to current conditions so that project success can be evaluated on net outcomes rather than specific change from existing conditions. We expect that the Mississippi River reintroduction into Maurepas Swamp will slow degradation and extend the life of the swamp for decades to centuries.

Louisiana↗

USGS2009

The National Coal Resource Assessment Overview

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has completed the National Coal Resource Assessment (NCRA), a multiyear project by the USGS Energy Resources Program, in partnership with State geological surveys in the coal producing regions of the United States. The NCRA is the first digital national coal-resource assessment. Coal beds and zones were assessed in five regions that account for more than 90 percent of the Nation's coal production - (1) the Appalachian Basin, (2) the Illinois Basin, (3) the Gulf Coastal Plain, (4) the Colorado Plateau, and (5) the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains. The purpose of this Professional Paper, USGS Professional Paper 1625-F, is to present a tabulation and overview of the assessment results, insight into the methods used in the NCRA, and supplemental information on coal quality, economics, and other factors that affect coal production in the United States.

Professional Paper↗

USGS2013

Wind River watershed restoration. Annual report. November 2011 through October 2012

Introduction This report summarizes work by U.S. Geological Survey’s Columbia River Research Laboratory (USGS-CRRL) in the Wind River subbasin, from November 2011 through October 2012. Funding was provided by Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) under contract 55275. The primary focus of USGS activities during this time was tagging of parr steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss with Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT) tags, and establishing a network of instream PIT tag interrogation systems (PTIS). The PIT-tagged parr steelhead will provide movement and life history data through recapture events and detections at instream PTIS systems, will contribute to estimates of adult steelhead returning to the Wind River, and aid in the evaluation of the removal of Hemlock Dam on Trout Creek steelhead populations. The Wind River Watershed project (BPA Project Number 1998-019-00) is a collaborative effort to restore wild steelhead in the Wind River, WA. The four partner agencies are the U.S. Forest Service (USFS), Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW), USGS-CRRL, and Underwood Conservation District (UCD). This partnership was established in the early 1990s with support from BPA, and has continued to conduct extensive habitat, research, monitoring, and coordination activities across the subbasin. The project works at multiple levels to identify and characterize key limiting habitat factors in the Wind River; restore degraded habitats and watershed processes; document fish populations, life histories, and interactions; investigate efficacy of restoration actions; and to share information across agency and non-agency boundaries. Long-term research in the Wind River has focused on assessments of steelhead/rainbow trout populations, relationships with introduced populations of spring Chinook salmon O. tshawytscha and brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis , and effects of habitat variables and habitat restoration on fish productivity. During the period covered by this report, we PIT tagged steelhead parr in headwater sections of the subbasin (Figure 1), maintained a PTIS in Trout Creek, installed a PTIS in the Wind River, and installed smaller scale PTISs in Trapper Creek, Paradise Creek, and the Wind River upstream of Paradise Creek (Figure 2). Additionally we maintained thermologgers to collect water temperature data near the PIT tagging sites. A statement of work (SOW) was submitted to BPA in October 2011 that outlined work to be performed by USGS-CRRL. The SOW was organized by Work Element (WE), with each describing a research task. This report summarizes the progress completed under each WE.

Washington↗

USGS1976

Ground water in the San Juan metropolitan area, Puerto Rico

Ground water in the San Juan, Puerto Rico, area has played a declining role in water supply since the completion of the Lofza reservoir project in the early 1950's. Ground-water potential is limited because of the small size of the aquifers and susceptibility to seawater intrusion. Of the 30 million gallons per day about half is being used. Two water-bearing zones are present: an artesian aquifer, composed of the San Sebastian Formation and the lower Cibao Formation that yields an average of 244 gallons per minute to wells; and, a water-table aquifer composed of the upper Cibao Formation and the Aguada and Aymamon Limestones that yields an average of 515 gallons per minute to wells. Ground water is less mineralized inland and in the artesian aquifer. Mean concentrations of dissolved solids are 363 milligrams per liter for the artesian aquifer and 525 milligrams per liter for the water-table aquifer. (Woodard-USGS)

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS1982

Test and calibration of the Digital World-Wide Standardized Seismograph

During the past decade there has been steady progress in the modernization of the global seismograph network operated by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The World-Wide Standardized Seismograph Network (WWSSN) has been augmented by new stations with advanced instrumentation, including the Seismic Research Observatories (SRO) and the modified High-Gain Long-Period (ASRO) stations. One goal in the modernization effort has been to improve signal resolution in the long-period band. A second goal has been to generate a global digital data base to support contemporary computer-based analysis and research. In 1976, a Panel on Seismograph Networks was established by the Committee on Seismology of the National Academy of Sciences to review progress in network seismology and recommend actions that would lead to an improved global data base for seismology. One recommendation in the Panel report (Engdahl, 1977) called for upgrading selected WWSSN stations by the installation of digital recorders. This was viewed as an economical way of expanding the digital network, which had proven itself to be a very promising new tool for earthquake and explosion research. Funds for the development and assembly of 15 digital recorders were provided to the USGS by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and an ad Inoc panel of scientists was convened by the Committee on Seismology to advise the USGS on the selection of stations to be upgraded and on data recording requirements, A total of 19 digital World-Wide Standardized Seismograph (DWWSS) systems will be operational when all are installed. The additional systems were made available through purchase by the USGS and other organizations; for example, the University of Bergen purchased and installed a DWWSS-type recorder and agreed to furnish the USGS with the data. A list of operational and planned DWWSS network stations is given in Table 1.1. As one might expect, the digital recorder turned out to be somewhat more sophisticated than the original concept. It was decided to record three components of long-period data continuously, three components of intermediateperiod data in an event mode, and the vertical-component short-period data in and event mode (with the capability of adding short-period horizontal channels in the future). Special amplifiers were developed for use with the WWSS seismometers, and a 16-bit fixed-point analog-to-digital converter was chosen to provide increased resolution (as opposed to a 16-bit gain-ranged encoder). The microprocessor-based digital recording systems were developed and assembled at the USGS Albuquerque Seismological Laboratory (ASL) and ASL-based technicians began installation at WWSSN stations in 1980. The current and proposed locations of the DWWSSN stations, together with other stations in the Global Digital Seismograph Network (GDSN), are shown on the map in Figure 1.1. A system was operated at Albuquerque for about 18 months, serving as a test bed for evaluation studies. Although the network hardware has been available for some time, the installation of the DWWSSN has proceeded slowly. The National Science Foundation supported installation of six stations and the USGS is funding installation of most of the others; however, the network completion date is conjectural because of funding uncertainties. The DWWSSN stations are supported with supplies and technical assistance from ASL (subject to availability of funds). Data recorded on magnetic tapes are mailed to ASL where they are reviewed for quality, then merged with other GDSN station data on the network-day tapes. Hoffman (1980) provides a description of the network-day tape format. Zirbes and Buland (1981) have developed and published user software for reading and interpreting the day tapes. This report will serve several purposes. One is to provide nominal system transfer functions and calibration information that are needed in the analysis of DWWSSN data. A second purpose is to report on an evaluation of operating characteristics (calibration stability, noise levels, and linearity) that may limit the usefulness of the data and to determine if modifications may be needed to improve the data. It is not an exhaustive study in this respect. We continue to depend mostly on data user feedback to point out deficiencies and we solicit comments whenever anomalies are observed in the data.

Open-File Report↗

USGS2000

Preliminary hydraulic analysis and implications for restoration of Noyes Slough, Fairbanks, Alaska

The present-day channels of the Chena River and Noyes Slough in downtown Fairbanks, Alaska, were formed as sloughs of the Tanana River, and part of the flow of the Tanana River occupied these waterways. Flow in these channels was reduced after the completion of Moose Creek Dike in 1945, and flow in the Chena River was affected by regulation from the Chena River Lakes Flood Control Project, which was completed in 1980. In 1981, flow in the Chena River was regulated for the first time by Moose Creek Dam, located about 20 miles upstream from Fairbanks. Constructed as part of the Chena River Lakes Flood Control Project, the dam was designed to reduce maximum flows to 12,000 cubic feet per second in downtown Fairbanks. Cross-section measurements made near the entrance to Noyes Slough show that the channel bed of the Chena River has been downcutting, thereby reducing the magnitude and duration of flow in the slough. Consequently the slough slowly is drying up. Residents of the community wish to restore flow in Noyes Slough to create a clean, flowing waterway during normal summer flows. The desire is to enhance the slough as a fishery and habitat for other wildlife and for recreational boating.

Alaska↗

USGS2015

Hydrology of the middle San Pedro area, southeastern Arizona

In the middle San Pedro Watershed in southeastern Arizona, groundwater is the primary source of water supply for municipal, domestic, industrial, and agricultural use. The watershed comprises two smaller subareas, the Benson subarea and the Narrows-Redington subarea. Early 21st century projections for heavy population growth in the watershed have not yet become a reality, but increased groundwater withdrawals could have undesired consequences - such as decreased base flow to the San Pedro River, and groundwater-level declines - that would lead to the need to deepen existing wells. This report describes the hydrology, hydrochemistry, water quality, and development of a groundwater budget for the middle San Pedro Watershed, focusing primarily on the elements of groundwater movement that could be most useful for the development of a groundwater model Precipitation data from Tombstone, Arizona, and base flow at the stream-gaging station on the San Pedro River at Charleston both show relatively dry periods during the 1960s through the mid-1980s and in the mid-1990s to 2009, and wetter periods from the mid-1980s through the mid-1990s. Water levels in four out of five wells near the mountain fronts show cyclical patterns of recharge, with rates of recharge greatest in the early 1980s through the mid-1990s. Three wells near the San Pedro River recorded their lowest levels during the 1950s to the mid-1960s. The water-level record from one well, completed in the confined part of the coarse-grained lower basin fill, showed a decline of approximately 21 meters. Annual flow of the San Pedro River, measured at the Charleston and Redington gages, has decreased since the 1940s. The median annual streamflow and base flow at the gaging station on the river near Tombstone has decreased by 50 percent between the periods 1968–1986 and 1997–2009. Estimates of streamflow infiltration along the San Pedro River during 1914–2009 have decreased 44 percent, with the largest decreases in the months June–October in the Benson subarea. In the Narrows-Redington subarea, streamflow infiltration has decreased about 65 percent during 1914–2009. The average annual outflow (27.6 hm 3 /year [cubic hectometers per year]) from the Benson subarea aquifer for water years 2001 through 2009 exceeded the inflows (20.0 hm 3 / yr) by 7.60 hm 3 /yr. In the Narrows-Redington subarea for the same period, the average annual outflow (15.7 hm 3 /yr) from the aquifer system exceeded the inflows (13.8 hm 3 /yr) by nearly 2 hm 3 /yr. The largest withdrawals of groundwater in both subareas are for irrigation; these withdrawals peaked in 1973 and have been steadily decreasing since then. Recharge from streamflow infiltration exceeded recharge from the mountain-front and from ephemeral channels in the Benson subarea. In the Narrows-Redington subarea, however, recharge from mountain-front and ephemeral channel recharge exceeded recharge from streamflow infiltration. Evapotranspiration by phreatophytes accounts for the largest outflow of groundwater for both subareas—78 percent of the outflow in the Narrows-Redington subarea and 62 percent of the outflow in the Benson subarea. Precipitation, surface-water, and groundwater chemistry and isotope data indicated the relative age and residence time of groundwater, the amount of interaction between geologic sources and groundwater, and how recharge elevation and season were related to the presence of modern water. The bedrock aquifer receives modern recharge (

Arizona↗

USGS2022

California Deepwater Investigations and Groundtruthing (Cal DIG) I, volume 3 — Benthic habitat characterization offshore Morro Bay, California

Coastal and Marine Ecological Classification Standard (CMECS) geoform, substrate, and biotic component geographic information system (GIS) products were developed for the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (U.S. EEZ) of south-central California in the region of Santa Lucia Bank motivated by interest in development of offshore wind-energy capacity and infrastructure. The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), in coordination with the State of California and many other members of the California Task Force, issued calls for information in 2018 for the study area offshore of Morro Bay, California. The study area is in depths of 500 to 1,200 meters (m) and adjacent to a decommissioned nuclear power plant with a developed electric grid connection, and in an area of high wind resource. BOEM is the lead agency responsible for planning and leasing in the U.S. EEZ and funded this project to assess baseline conditions of, and the potential effects on, the seafloor environment. This project, carried out by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), resulted in three reports: one on biological analysis of seafloor video data, one on analysis of the geologic framework and hazards, and this report on seafloor habitat. The study area consists of 8,424 square kilometers (km 2 ) of multibeam echo sounder (MBES) data acquired during five surveys from 2016 to 2019. Remotely operated vehicle (ROV) video was acquired in 2019 to supervise the classification of the MBES data into habitats. Derivatives of the MBES data were classified into 16 unique biotopes, 6 substrate types, 28 modifier groups, and 22 geoforms. The study area substrate is predominantly soft sediment (mud and fine sand) covering 7,804 km 2 (92.7 percent) of the area. Mixed substrate areas on rocky banks, channel scarps, and the shelf break comprise 404 km 2 (4.8 percent) of the study area. Hard substrate areas are found predominantly on the tops and flanks of banks and on bank ridges that separate canyons incising the banks. Hard substrates comprise 211 km 2 of the study area (2.5 percent). After the bathymetry and backscatter raster images (rasters) were classified, manual editing was also done to remove noise artifacts. This effort was not completely successful and there are numerous erroneous small areas in the rasters that have been passed on to the CMECS polygon product. Nearly 120,000 annotations of organisms and their habitat were made from 25 video transects selected from 185 hours of ROV video. In total, 2,714 km 2 of seafloor were successfully assigned to biotopes. Some biotopes were assigned to separate areas spatially distant from the transects that define the biotope. Expected relations between physical habitat and biota such as the number of species and the substrate induration and rugosity were verified. Slope is typically a predictive variable and was used in the classification of habitat, but the ground truth used for biotic component analysis included very little steeply sloping area. Ground-truth ROV operations were reduced by the sea state; additional ground truth could improve the biotic results and increase confidence in the spatial distribution of classifications reported here.

California↗