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At least 361 records · Page 20Linked to original sources
USGS2013

Aspects of embryonic and larval development in bighead carp Hypophthalmichthys nobilis and silver carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix

As bighead carp Hypophthalmichthys nobilis and silver carp H. molitrix (the bigheaded carps) are poised to enter the Laurentian Great Lakes and potentially damage the region’s economically important fishery, information on developmental rates and behaviors of carps is critical to assessing their ability to establish sustainable populations within the Great Lakes basin. In laboratory experiments, the embryonic and larval developmental rates, size, and behaviors of bigheaded carp were tracked at two temperature treatments, one “cold” and one “warm”. Developmental rates were computed using previously described stages of development and the cumulative thermal unit method. Both species have similar thermal requirements, with a minimum developmental temperature for embryonic stages of 12.1° C for silver carp and 12.9° C for bighead carp, and 13.3° C for silver carp larval stages and 13.4° C for bighead carp larval stages. Egg size differed among species and temperature treatments, as egg size was larger in bighead carp, and “warm" temperature treatments. The larvae started robust upwards vertical swimming immediately after hatching, interspersed with intervals of sinking. Vertical swimming tubes were used to measure water column distribution, and ascent and descent rates of vertically swimming fish. Water column distribution and ascent and descent rates changed with ontogeny. Water column distribution also showed some diel periodicity. Developmental rates, size, and behaviors contribute to the drift distance needed to fulfill the early life history requirements of bigheaded carps and can be used in conjunction with transport information to assess invasibility of a river.

PLoS ONE↗
USGS2005

Evaluation of Measurements Collected with Multi-Parameter Continuous Water-Quality Monitors in Selected Illinois Streams, 2001-03

Eight streams, representing a wide range of environmental and water-quality conditions across Illinois, were monitored from July 2001 to October 2003 for five water-quality parameters as part of a pilot study by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in cooperation with the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency (IEPA). Continuous recording multi-parameter water-quality monitors were installed to collect data on water temperature, dissolved-oxygen concentrations, specific conductivity, pH, and turbidity. The monitors were near USGS streamflow-gaging stations where stage and streamflow are continuously recorded. During the study period, the data collected for these five parameters generally met the data-quality objectives established by the USGS and IEPA at all eight stations. A similar pilot study during this period for measurement of chlorophyll concentrations failed to achieve the data-quality objectives. Of all the sensors used, the temperature sensors provided the most accurate and reliable measurements (generally within ?5 percent of a calibrated thermometer reading). Signal adjustments and calibration of all other sensors are dependent upon an accurate and precise temperature measurement. The dissolved-oxygen sensors were the next most reliable during the study and were responsive to changing conditions and accurate at all eight stations. Specific conductivity was the third most accurate and reliable measurement collected from the multi-parameter monitors. Specific conductivity at the eight stations varied widely-from less than 40 microsiemens (?S) at Rayse Creek near Waltonville to greater than 3,500 ?S at Salt Creek at Western Springs. In individual streams, specific conductivity often changed quickly (greater than 25 percent in less than 3 hours) and the sensors generally provided good to excellent record of these variations at all stations. The widest range of specific-conductivity measurements was in Salt Creek at Western Springs in the Greater Chicago metropolitan area. Unlike temperature, dissolved oxygen, and specific conductivity that have been typically measured over a wide range of historical streamflow conditions in many streams, there are few historical turbidity data and the full range of turbidity values is not well known for many streams. Because proposed regional criteria for turbidity in regional streams are based on upper 25th percentiles of concentration in reference streams, accurate determination of the distribution of turbidity in monitored streams is important. Digital data from all five sensors were recorded within each of the eight sondes deployed in the streams and in automated data recorders in the nearby streamflow-gaging houses at each station. The data recorded on each sonde were retrieved to a field laptop computer at each station visit. The feasibility of transmitting these data in near-real time to a central processing point for dissemination on the World-Wide Web was tested successfully. Data collected at all eight stations indicate that a number of factors affect the dissolved-oxygen concentration in the streams and rivers monitored. These factors include: temperature, biological activity, nutrient runoff, and weather (storm runoff). During brief periods usually in late summer, dissolved-oxygen concentrations in half or more of the eight streams and rivers monitored were below the 5 milligrams per liter minimum established by the Illinois Pollution Control Board to protect aquatic life. Because the streams monitored represent a wide range in water-quality and environmental conditions, including diffuse (non-point) runoff and wastewater-effluent contributions, this result indicates that deleterious low dissolved-oxygen concentrations during late summer may be widespread in Illinois streams.

Scientific Investigations Report↗
USGS2012

On the use of wave parameterizations and a storm impact scaling model in National Weather Service Coastal Flood and decision support operations

National Weather Service (NWS) Weather Forecast Offices (WFO) are responsible for issuing coastal flood watches, warnings, advisories, and local statements to alert decision makers and the general public when rising water levels may lead to coastal impacts such as inundation, erosion, and wave battery. Both extratropical and tropical cyclones can generate the prerequisite rise in water level to set the stage for a coastal impact event. Forecasters use a variety of tools including computer model guidance and local studies to help predict the potential severity of coastal flooding. However, a key missing component has been the incorporation of the effects of waves in the prediction of total water level and the associated coastal impacts. Several recent studies have demonstrated the importance of incorporating wave action into the NWS coastal flood program. To follow up on these studies, this paper looks at the potential of applying recently developed empirical parameterizations of wave setup, swash, and runup to the NWS forecast process. Additionally, the wave parameterizations are incorporated into a storm impact scaling model that compares extreme water levels to beach elevation data to determine the mode of coastal change at predetermined “hotspots” of interest. Specifically, the storm impact model compares the approximate storm-induced still water level, which includes contributions from tides, storm surge, and wave setup, to dune crest elevation to determine inundation potential. The model also compares the combined effects of tides, storm surge, and the 2 % exceedance level for vertical wave runup (including both wave setup and swash) to dune toe and crest elevations to determine if erosion and/or ocean overwash may occur. The wave parameterizations and storm impact model are applied to two cases in 2009 that led to significant coastal impacts and unique forecast challenges in North Carolina: the extratropical “Nor'Ida” event during 11-14 November and the large swell event from distant Hurricane Bill on 22 August. The coastal impacts associated with Nor'Ida were due to the combined effects of surge, tide, and wave processes and led to an estimated 5.8 million dollars in damage. While the impacts from Hurricane Bill were not as severe as Nor'Ida, they were mainly associated with wave processes. Thus, this event exemplifies the importance of incorporating waves into the total water level and coastal impact prediction process. These examples set the stage for potential future applications including adaption to the more complex topography along the New England coast.

Conference Paper↗
USGS2004

Generalized estimates from streamflow data of annual and seasonal ground-water-recharge rates for drainage basins in New Hampshire

This report presents regression equations to estimate generalized annual and seasonal ground-water-recharge rates in drainage basins in New Hampshire. The ultimate source of water for a ground-water withdrawal is aquifer recharge from a combination of precipitation on the aquifer, ground-water flow from upland basin areas, and infiltration from streambeds to the aquifer. An assessment of ground-water availability in a basin requires that recharge rates be estimated under `normal' conditions and under assumed drought conditions. Recharge equations were developed by analyzing streamflow, basin characteristics, and precipitation at 55 unregulated continuous record stream-gaging stations in New Hampshire and in adjacent states. In the initial step, streamflow records were analyzed to estimate a series of annual and seasonal ground-water-recharge components of streamflow in each drainage basin evaluated in this study. Regression equations were then developed relating the series of annual and seasonal ground-water-recharge values to the corresponding series of annual and seasonal precipitation values as determined at the centroid of each drainage basin. This resulted in one equation for each of the 55 basins for each of the four seasonal periods and the annual period, or a total of 275 regression equations. Average annual and seasonal precipitation data for 1961-90 were then used to compute a set of normalized ground-water-recharge values that reflected the long-term average annual and seasonal variations (normalized) and mean recharge characteristics of each drainage basin. Ordinary-least-squares regression was applied in the process of selecting 10 out of 93 possible basin and climatic characteristics for further testing in the development of the equations for computing the generalized estimate of annual and seasonal ground-water recharge based on the set of normalized recharge values. Generalized-least-squares regression was used for the final parameter estimation and error evaluation. The following basin and climatic characteristics were found to be statistically significant predictors for at least one of the dependent variables: average annual, summer, and spring precipitation as determined at U.S. Geological Survey stream-gaging stations; average annual basin-centroid precipitation; average mean annual basin temperature; average minimum winter basin temperature; percent coniferous forest in a basin; percent mixed coniferous and deciduous forest in a basin; average fall basin-centroid precipitation; and average annual snowcover. These 10 basin and climatic characteristics were selected because they were statistically significant based on several statistical parameters that evaluated which combination of characteristics contributed the most to the predictive accuracy of the regression-equation models. A geographic information system is required to measure the values of the predictor variables for the equations developed in the study. The average annual normalized ground-water recharge was 21.0 in. This value was determined by generalized-least-squares (GLS) regression analysis for all of the basins used in the normalized ground-water recharge analysis for precipitation from 1961-90. The average winter (January 1-March 15) ground-water recharge was 4.3 in., average spring (March 16-May 31) ground-water recharge was 9.0 in., average summer (June 1-October 31) ground-water recharge was 4.0 in., and average fall (November 1-December 31) ground-water recharge was 3.6 in. Normalized ground-water recharge ranged annually from 12.3 to 31.8 in., for winter from 2.30 to 7.82 in., for spring from 5.16 to 13.7 in., for summer from 1.45 to 10.2 in., and for fall from 2.21 to 6.06 in.

New Hampshire↗
USGS1993

Reconnaissance data for selected herbicides, two atrazine metabolities, and nitrate in surface water of the Midwestern United States, 1989-90

Water-quality data were collected from 147 rivers and streams during 1989-90 to assess selected preemergent herbicides, two atrazine metabolites, and nitrate in 10 Midwestern States. This report includes a description of the sampling design, data collection techniques, laboratory and analytical methods, and a compilation of constituent concentrations and quality-assurance data. All water samples were collected by depth-integrating techniques at three to five locations across the wetted perimeter of each stream. Sites were sampled three times in l989--before application of herbi- cides, during the first major runoff after appli- cation of herbicides, and in the fall during a low-flow period when ground water contributed to most of the streamflow. About 50 sites were selected by a stratified random procedure and resampled for both pre- and post-application herbicide concen- trations in 1990 to verify the 1989 results. Laboratory analyses consisted of both enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with confirmation by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The data are useful in studying herbicide transport, in comparison of the spatial distribution of the post-application concentrations of 11 herbicides and 2 atrazine metabolites (deethylatrazine and deisopropylatrazine) in streams and rivers at a regional scale. It is also useful in examination of annual persistence of herbicides and two metabolites in surface water, and in the assessment of atrazine metabolites as indicators of surface- and ground- water interaction. The reconnaissance data are contained in this report and are also available on computer diskette from the U.S. Geological Survey in Lawrence, Kansas.

Open-File Report↗
USGS2014

Modeled sulfate concentrations in North Dakota streams, 1993-2008, based on spatial basin characteristics

Sulfate concentration data collected from North Dakota streams during recent (1993–2008) years indicates generally higher sulfate concentrations across much of the State compared to concentrations during earlier years. The higher sulfate concentrations have been attributed in other studies to wetter climatic conditions, associated increases in contributing drainage areas, and rising water tables. The State’s current (2013) stream classification system, which includes a standard for 30-day average sulfate concentration, is based on earlier data and thus may not reflect natural conditions for more recent years. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the North Dakota Department of Health and the North Dakota State Water Commission, completed a study to evaluate the relation of maximum seasonal (30-day moving average) sulfate concentrations during 1993–2008 to characteristics of the contributing basins to model expected naturally-occurring sulfate concentrations in North Dakota streams. Sulfate concentration data for 75 stream sampling sites in North Dakota were analyzed for this study. A spatial analysis was conducted with digital data using a Geographic Information System to obtain selected basin characteristics, which were in turn used as explanatory variables in a regression analysis to model the maximum seasonal (30-day moving average) sulfate concentration. Characteristics used in the regression analysis included mean annual precipitation, mean percent soil clay content, and mean percent saturation overland flow. Modeled sulfate concentrations generally were highest (greater than 750 milligrams per liter) in basins in western North Dakota and lowest (less than 250 milligrams per liter) in basins in the upper Sheyenne River and upper James River. Area-weighted means for the basin characteristics also were computed for 10-digit and 8-digit hydrologic units for streams in North Dakota and modeled sulfate concentrations were computed from the characteristics. The resulting distribution of modeled sulfate concentrations was similar to the distribution of estimates for the 12-digit hydrologic units, but less variable because the basin characteristics were averaged over larger areas.

North Dakota↗
USGS2025

Phase 1 technical implementation plan for the expansion of the ShakeAlert earthquake early warning system to Alaska

Executive Summary The conference report accompanying the fiscal year (FY) 2022 Consolidated Appropriations Act (Public Law 117–103) for the U.S. Department of the Interior and related agencies directed the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to “work with the State of Alaska to develop an implementation plan to be completed within two years in order to put ShakeAlert/Earthquake Early Warning in Alaska” (p. 29). Congress included $1 million in the FY 2022 appropriation to conduct this effort. The USGS Earthquake Hazards Program, along with partner organizations, has developed the ShakeAlert earthquake early warning (EEW) system for the West Coast, which currently operates in California, Oregon, and Washington. The purpose of the system and its alert delivery partners is to reduce the impact of earthquakes and save lives and property by delivering ShakeAlert-powered alerts that are transmitted to the public via mass notification technologies, and by providing more detailed data streams to institutional users and commercial service providers to trigger automated, user-specific, protective actions. ShakeAlert was designed in such a way that it could be expanded to other U.S. regions with high earthquake risk, after the build-out of seismic and geodetic networks to support ShakeAlert in a specified region is completed and the necessary funding is secured for long-term operation and maintenance. When an earthquake occurs, seismic waves radiate from the rupturing fault like waves on a pond. It is these waves that people feel as earthquake shaking and that can cause damage to structures. Using networks of ground-motion sensors and sophisticated computer algorithms, ShakeAlert can detect an earthquake seconds after it begins, calculate its location and magnitude, and estimate the resulting intensity of shaking. Early warnings of impending shaking are then sent to people and systems that may experience damaging shaking, allowing them to take appropriate protective actions. Depending on the user’s distance from the earthquake, alerts may be delivered before, during, or after the arrival of strong shaking. There will almost always be a region near the earthquake epicenter where alerts arrive after damaging shaking has begun. The ShakeAlert system updates its ground-motion estimates as an earthquake grows larger. In response to the FY 2022 congressional direction, the USGS worked with the State of Alaska to devise this implementation plan for ShakeAlert expansion to Alaska. The USGS engaged with the Alaska Division of Homeland Security and Emergency Management (DHS&EM) and the Alaska Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys (DGGS). A cooperative agreement was awarded to the Alaska Earthquake Center (AEC) at the University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) for their contributions to the plan and their work coordinating with other networks in Alaska. The USGS engaged with the Alaska Seismic Hazards Safety Commission (ASHSC) throughout the process. The USGS also held a series of Alaska stakeholder engagements. The process of developing the implementation plan was facilitated by contracted staff from Corner Alliance, which is a government consulting firm. This implementation plan describes the details and estimates the costs for a Phase 1 expansion of the ShakeAlert system to Alaska. A geographically limited Phase 1 goal was chosen that covers the highest risk and most populated areas of Alaska. The areas proposed encompass the State’s main population centers and 90 percent of the State’s population. This Phase 1 design is considered very challenging and ambitious from the viewpoint of network operators. The lessons learned if this plan is implemented could be used to consider subsequent phases to expand EEW beyond Phase 1 in Alaska in the future. ShakeAlert is built on the foundation of the sensor networks and data processing infrastructure of the USGS-led Advanced National Seismic System (ANSS). This implementation plan calls for a total of 450 high-quality, real-time EEW-capable ANSS seismic stations in Alaska: 270 new stations, 160 upgraded stations, and 20 existing stations. These seismic station numbers are based on a station spacing of 10 kilometers (km) in urban areas, 20 km in seismic source areas that endanger population centers, and 40 km in other areas. The associated costs also include support for some EEW-capable global navigation satellite system (GNSS) stations, with a focus on improving warnings for large subduction zone earthquakes. For effective EEW, ShakeAlert requires low-latency, high-availability, robust telemetry links to deliver continuous, real-time data from field stations to the data centers. The Alaska data processing hardware infrastructure would follow the general design for fail-safe operation that is used for the ShakeAlert system on the West Coast. The ShakeAlert architecture uses two independent layers: the production layer for earthquake processing and the alert layer to make alerting decisions and serve alerts to users. This implementation plan includes two geographically separated data centers in Alaska, each with two fully independent production and alert layers using the same system design developed for the West Coast. As of March 2024, the ShakeAlert system is at version 3.0.1, with more advanced versions in the development and testing pipeline. ShakeAlert originally used two algorithms to determine the location and magnitude of earthquakes using seismic data. A third algorithm that can calculate very large magnitudes of very large earthquakes with geodetic data was added in March 2024. ShakeAlert publishes several data and alert products to meet the needs of different users. All messages include the location of the earthquake, either as a point or a line, and its magnitude. Ground-shaking estimates are published in two forms, as ground-motion contours and a map grid. Providing adequate warning time for strong shaking (the “target threshold”) requires sending alerts at a threshold lower than that strong shaking level (the “alert threshold”). The thresholds for public alerting in Alaska would be a joint USGS and State decision. To have the greatest benefit, ShakeAlert-powered alerts would be delivered to institutional users and individuals by all practical pathways. The USGS alert layer can support thousands of institutional users and alert redistributors, but the USGS does not have the mission nor the infrastructure and expertise to perform mass notifications to the public or implement automatic actions for end users of the alerts. To meet this need, ShakeAlert recruits private sector “technology enablers” that have the necessary expertise to develop end-user implementations using EEW alerts with the goal of stimulating an EEW industry. Earthquake early warning alerts are useless if people do not know how to respond to them. Although the alert messages include instructions about what to do (drop, cover, and hold on), alerts are more effective if people have been trained in advance. Messages about ShakeAlert’s capabilities, limitations, and benefits could be integrated with existing earthquake education programs, including State-run programs. Therefore, ShakeAlert would coordinate with both public and private partners and stakeholders through various partnerships and agreements to accomplish consistent and ongoing public earthquake hazard education. The estimated capital cost of completing the computing infrastructure and sensor networks for the Phase 1 ShakeAlert expansion to Alaska is approximately $66 million in 2024 dollars. The annual operation and maintenance cost of the completed system is estimated to be $12 million per year in 2024 dollars when fully built out.

Alaska↗
USGS2020

Precipitation runoff modeling system (PRMS) as part of an integrated hydrologic model for the Osage Nation, northeastern Oklahoma, 1915–2014

Executive Summary The Osage Nation lacks a comprehensive tribal water plan to describe the quality and quantity of water resources in the Osage Nation, a 2,304-square-mile (mi 2 ) area of rolling pastures, tallgrass prairie, and mixed woodlands in northeastern Oklahoma. A tribal water plan can be used to help manage the sustainable development of surface and groundwater resources, thereby helping to provide a better future for the Osage Nation and their neighbors, while preserving water resources for the benefit of the surrounding environment and future generations. To help meet these goals and contribute to increased knowledge of the quantity and quality of water resources and the hydrologic processes and factors affecting those resources, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in cooperation with the Osage Nation began studies to evaluate the surface-water and groundwater resources of the Osage Nation. An important component of these studies is the development and application of numerical models to improve quantification and understanding of the hydrologic system. These models are needed to estimate and quantify the effects of historical and potential future water resource development for the Osage Nation. This report describes the development and application of a precipitation-runoff model, the Osage Nation watershed model (ONWM). The ONWM is needed as a component of the Osage Nation integrated hydrologic model (ONIHM). At the time of this study, the ONIHM was being developed using the USGS computer software MODFLOW-One Water Hydrologic Flow Model (MODFLOW-OWHM). The intended use of the ONIHM is to simulate all surface-water and groundwater components of the hydrologic system for a 2,905-mi 2 study area centered on the Osage Nation. The ONWM was developed using the USGS Precipitation Runoff Modeling System, version 4 (PRMS-IV) computer software, also referred to as PRMS in this report, for an 8,343-mi 2 study area in northeastern Oklahoma and southeastern Kansas, centered on and including the areas of the Osage Nation and the ONIHM. The ONWM is to be used as part of the ONIHM to provide a direct coupling with spatially and temporally varying daily climate conditions affecting the ONIHM study area. As an integral part of the ONIHM, the ONWM (1) simulates the inflow boundary conditions from tributary basins in the region outside and surrounding the ONIHM area; (2) provides estimates of spatially and temporally distributed precipitation, air temperature, potential evapotranspiration (PET), actual evapotranspiration (ET), soil moisture, recharge, and streamflow in the ONIHM area; and (3) provides a preliminary water budget for the ONIHM area and the surrounding region, including tributary drainage basins outside of and next to the ONIHM. The specific objectives of this study were to use the ONWM to (1) provide a systematic inventory of the historical distribution of water inflows from precipitation (rain or snow) falling on the land surface and flowing through the surface-water network, (2) provide a historical context of the variability and spatial and temporal distribution of these waters, and (3) provide estimates of water inflows and potential observations to the ONIHM. The application of the ONWM as a component of the ONIHM is needed for planned simulations using the ONIHM to improve the understanding of the hydrologic system and to develop a fully comprehensive water budget, including the use and movement of water across the landscape, in the surface-water network, and in groundwater aquifers under historical and potential future conditions.

Oklahoma↗
USGS1938

Floods of Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, January-February 1937, with a section on the Flood deposits of the Ohio River, January-February 1937

In January and February 1937 the Ohio and mid-Mississippi Rivers experienced floods which, over reaches many hundreds of miles in length, exceeded all previously recorded stages. When measured by the loss of life and property, extent of damage, and general disruption of human activities, these floods constituted a major catastrophe. The floods were caused by a succession of heavy rainstorms that began late in December 1936 and continued nearly to the end of the following January. Although the storms covered a considerable part of the lower Mississippi River Basin and almost the entire Ohio River Basin, the center of heaviest precipitation was in the middle and lower portions of the Ohio River Valley. The total storm period can be subdivided into several individual storms, which were more or less clearly demarked by short intervening periods of little or no precipitation. Although the individual storm periods were the same or nearly the same over wide areas, their subdivisions were somewhat different in the most widely separated parts of the affected areas, with intermediate gradations in the intervening areas. The heaviest rainfall--that of January 20 to 25--was centered in the lower Ohio Valley, and, falling as it did upon a region with soil saturated and waterways already running full, it had the effect of producing extreme floods. The small quantity of snow on the ground over the higher eastern parts of the area at the beginning of the storm period disappeared in a short time. Some of the precipitation occurred in the form of snow, but this snow and the associated cold weather were much less significant in their influence on the floods than in the misery and discomfort they caused to ill-sheltered flood refugees and flood-bound people. Sequence and time of the storms were such that in the upper and smaller tributary basins the associated flood rises tended to clear to a notable degree before the-next flood rises came; hence many of these tributaries were at no time in extreme flood. In the lower reaches of the largest tributaries, and especially on the middle and lower reaches of the Ohio River, there were extreme and almost continuously increasing accumulations of run-off, which culminated in the region of Louisville, Ky., in stages 10 or 11 feet higher than any previously known. The precipitation was heaviest in the Ohio River Basin, and the flood in the Mississippi River, like other notable floods of the past, was caused largely by the extraordinary contributions from the Ohio River. The river stages exceeded those previously recorded for the lower 700 miles on the Ohio River and for 250 miles .on the Mississippi River below the Ohio. At Cairo, Ill., at the mouth Of the Ohio River, the river stage was higher for a period of 19 days, from January 24 to February 11, than at any previous time on record. The height above previous flood stages diminished materially as the flood progressed down the Mississippi. The mean precipitation ever the Ohio River Basin during the storm period was. 12.85 inches. The snow on the ground at the beginning of the period is estimated to have been equivalent to a mean depth of 0.10 inch of water over the basin. Out of the total precipitation 8.9 inches appeared as flood flow. On January 26 the computed volume of water in the stream channels of the Ohio River Basin was 56,000,000 acre-feet, equivalent to a depth of 5.1 inches over the drainage basin. The maximum discharge of the Ohio River at its mouth was 1,880,000 second-feet on February 1. On February 2, the day of the crest stage at the mouth of the Ohio, the computed volume of water on the surface channel system was equivalent to a depth of 3.7 inches over the drainage basin, of which 2.4 inches was in the 337-mile reach of the Ohio River between Louisville, Ky., and the mouth. This water-supply paper presents records of stage and discharge for the period including the floods at about 250 measurement stations, records of stage and discharge for the period including the floods at about 250 measurement stations, records of storage in many reservoirs, a summary of peak discharges with comparative data for other floods at about 470 measurement points, and tables showing crest stages along an aggregate length of stream channel for 5,000 miles. The report also includes basic information in regard to the weather associated with the floods, results of detailed studies of the rainfall and run-off, analyses of the volume of flood waters'in the surface channel systems during the progress of the floods, and many other kinds of flood information. Following the main flood report is a brief report entitled "Flood" deposits of the Ohio River, January-February 1937, a study of sedimentation." An abstract of that report is presented on page 693.

Ohio River, Mississippi River↗
USGS1939

Floods in the Canadian and Pecos River basins of New Mexico, May and June 1937

In May and June floods occurred in the Canadian and Pecos River Basins of New Mexico that were unusually high and in many places were record breaking. The floods were caused by heavy rains that occurred over the eastern part of the State from May 23 to June 4 in a series of intense and intermittent storms. During these storms of the cloudburst type as much as 12 inches of rain fell in the 13-day period, and a fall of 7 inches in 2 hours and 40 minutes was reported from the vicinity of Clayton. Heavy rains also fell in the mountainous region west of Roswell, amounting to as much as l0 inches at some places. Much of the region that had excessive rainfall is relatively flat and has no well-defined drainage system. From these areas there was very little run-off and practically no water was contributed to the major streams. Hail fell at many places in eastern New Mexico, causing damage to crops, livestock, and other property. Hail fell somewhere in the Canadian and Pecos River Basins almost every day during the storm period, but the duration of the fall was generally short. The largest hailstones were reported from Clayton, where one stone measured 8 inches in circumference and weighed 9 ounces; at Centerville, where reports state that some stones were 9 to 10 inches in circumference; and near Roswell, where it was reported that six stones would fill a gallon bucket. The Canadian River flood reached a peak at Logan of 110,000 second-feet, which has been exceeded in this century only by the floods of 1904, 1909, and 1914. The total run-off at Logan for the flood period has been computed as 653,800 acre-feet. At Santa Rosa the Pecos River reached a maximum discharge of 88,200 second-feet, which is greater than any previously recorded. This flood was partly stored in the Alamogordo Reservoir; the peak below the reservoir was only 25,200 second-feet. The Pecos River flood at Roswell reached a maximum discharge of more than 80,000 second-feet. This water came mostly from tributaries that have .their sources in the mountainous area west of Roswell. The Cienaga del Macho, ordinarily a small dry creek, discharged about 49,800 second-feet at its peak. The Rio Hondo experienced several flood peaks, the largest at Roswell probably being near 20,000 second-feet. Berrendo Creek, which enters the Rio Hondo near Roswell, had a computed peak discharge of 37,700 second-feet. Roswell was subjected to several floods that inundated large areas of the town. Considerable damage was done by the water, which covered nearly all the area occupied by the town. Lake McMillan, an artificial reservoir on the Pecos River about 12 miles above Carlsbad, was put to a severe strain by the large quantity of water passing through it, but no serious damage resulted. The capacity of the lake at spillway level is about 39,000 acre-feet, but at the peak of the flood the lake held about 86,000 acre-feet. The total quantity of water passing through the lake during the flood period was more than 440,000 acre-feet. This report presents data pertinent to the floods of May and June 1937, including results of peak discharge determinations made at about 14 miscellaneous places, records of peak stages and discharges and of mean daily discharges during the flood period at 23 regular river-measurement stations, records of rainfall at about 190 places, an isohyetal map showing rainfall over the entire State and two isohyetal maps showing rainfall over the Canadian and Pecos River Basins, and a discussion of the weather conditions during the flood period, including an upper-air wind and pressure chart of the United States for May 28, 1937. In addition to the information listed above the report includes a summary of records of past floods at all places in New Mexico at which authentic records were available.

New Mexico↗
USGS2012

Probabilistic estimates of surface coseismic slip and afterslip for Hayward fault earthquakes

We examine the partition of long‐term geologic slip on the Hayward fault into interseismic creep, coseismic slip, and afterslip. Using Monte Carlo simulations, we compute expected coseismic slip and afterslip at three alinement array sites for Hayward fault earthquakes with nominal moment magnitudes ranging from about 6.5 to 7.1. We consider how interseismic creep might affect the coseismic slip distribution as well as the variability in locations of large and small slip patches and the magnitude of an earthquake for a given rupture area. We calibrate the estimates to be consistent with the ratio of interseismic creep rate at the alinement array sites to the geologic slip rate for the Hayward fault. We find that the coseismic slip at the surface is expected to comprise only a small fraction of the long‐term geologic slip. The median values of coseismic slip are less than 0.2 m in nearly all cases as a result of the influence of interseismic creep and afterslip. However, afterslip makes a substantial contribution to the long‐term geologic slip and may be responsible for up to 0.5–1.5 m (median plus one standard deviation [S.D.]) of additional slip following an earthquake rupture. Thus, utility and transportation infrastructure could be severely impacted by afterslip in the hours and days following a large earthquake on the Hayward fault that generated little coseismic slip. Inherent spatial variability in earthquake slip combined with the uncertainty in how interseismic creep affects coseismic slip results in large uncertainties in these slip estimates.

California↗
USGS1982

Dissolved solids and sodium in water from the High Plains aquifer in parts of Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, and Wyoming

In 1978, the U.S. Geological Survey initiated a 5-year study of the High Plains regional aquifer to provide: (1) Hydrologic information needed to evaluate the effects of continued ground-water development; and (2) computer models to predict aquifer response to changes in ground-water development. The plan of study for the High Plains Regional Aquifer-System Analysis was described by Weeks (1978). A description of the High Plains aquifer and a map of the 1978 water table were presented by Gutentag and Weeks (1980). Maps of the bedrock geology, altitude of aquifer base, and saturated thickness of the High Plains aquifer were published by Weeks and Gutentag (1981). Water-level and saturated-thickness changes, from predevelopment to 1980, were mapped by Luckey, Gutentag, and Weeks (1981). This report describes the areal distribution of dissolved solids and sodium in the water of the High Plains aquifer. Data used in this study were provided by the U.S. Geological Survey and State agencies in each of the eight States in the High Plains. Their contribution is an integral part of this investigation.

Hydrologic Atlas↗
USGS2015

The data quality analyzer: a quality control program for seismic data

The U.S. Geological Survey's Albuquerque Seismological Laboratory (ASL) has several initiatives underway to enhance and track the quality of data produced from ASL seismic stations and to improve communication about data problems to the user community. The Data Quality Analyzer (DQA) is one such development and is designed to characterize seismic station data quality in a quantitative and automated manner. The DQA consists of a metric calculator, a PostgreSQL database, and a Web interface: The metric calculator, SEEDscan, is a Java application that reads and processes miniSEED data and generates metrics based on a configuration file. SEEDscan compares hashes of metadata and data to detect changes in either and performs subsequent recalculations as needed. This ensures that the metric values are up to date and accurate. SEEDscan can be run as a scheduled task or on demand. The PostgreSQL database acts as a central hub where metric values and limited station descriptions are stored at the channel level with one-day granularity. The Web interface dynamically loads station data from the database and allows the user to make requests for time periods of interest, review specific networks and stations, plot metrics as a function of time, and adjust the contribution of various metrics to the overall quality grade of the station. The quantification of data quality is based on the evaluation of various metrics (e.g., timing quality, daily noise levels relative to long-term noise models, and comparisons between broadband data and event synthetics). Users may select which metrics contribute to the assessment and those metrics are aggregated into a “grade” for each station. The DQA is being actively used for station diagnostics and evaluation based on the completed metrics (availability, gap count, timing quality, deviation from a global noise model, deviation from a station noise model, coherence between co-located sensors, and comparison between broadband data and synthetics for earthquakes) on stations in the Global Seismographic Network and Advanced National Seismic System.

Computers & Geosciences↗
USGS2020

Oil-source rock correlation studies in the unconventional Upper Cretaceous Tuscaloosa marine shale (TMS) petroleum system, Mississippi and Louisiana, USA

The U.S. Geological Survey assessed undiscovered unconventional hydrocarbon resources reservoired in the Upper Cretaceous Tuscaloosa marine shale (TMS) of southern Mississippi and adjacent Louisiana in 2018. As part of the assessment, oil-source rock correlations were examined in the TMS play area where operators produce light (38–45° API), sweet oil from horizontal, hydraulically-fractured wells in an overpressured ‘high-resistivity’ (>5 Ω-m) zone at the base of the TMS. Geochemical data from 39 oil samples and 17 source rock solvent extracts collected from the TMS play area indicate close correspondence for Tuscaloosa Group oils [from lower Tuscaloosa, middle Tuscaloosa (the TMS) and upper Tuscaloosa reservoirs] in thermal maturity (computed from MPI), SARA proportions, n- alkane distributions, isoprenoid and DBT/P ratios, monoaromatic steroids, and δ 13 C isotopic compositions (from whole oils, saturate and aromatic fractions). Other parameters (normal steranes, extended homohopanes, C 31 R/C 30 hopane, norhopane/hopane and tricyclic terpane ratios, gammacerane/hopane) show most oil samples have similar values, suggesting all Tuscaloosa Group oils are from a common mixed marine-terrigenous source rock. Tighter distributions for triaromatic steroid (TAS) and δ 13 C isotopic composition for conventional oils in lower and upper Tuscaloosa reservoirs may indicate charge occurred in a single or shorter pulse relative to TMS oils which show broader TAS and δ 13 C properties, possibly from their generation over an extended period of burial maturation. Dissimilarity in geochemical properties between lower Tuscaloosa source rock solvent extracts and Tuscaloosa Group oils indicates lower Tuscaloosa source rocks did not contribute significantly to conventional and unconventional Tuscaloosa Group hydrocarbon accumulations. Whereas, TMS solvent extracts are similar to Tuscaloosa Group oils, suggesting an oil-source rock correlation. Excluding the possibility for long-distance lateral migration from a similar source downdip (which is unnecessary given thermal maturity considerations), the observations indicate 1. the TMS is a self-sourced reservoir, 2. the TMS is the source of oils accumulated in nearby conventional Tuscaloosa Group reservoirs, and 3. thin organic-rich shales in the lower Tuscaloosa did not contribute substantially to any oil accumulations in the Tuscaloosa Group.

Louisiana, Mississippi↗
USGS2003

Hydrology, nutrient concentrations, and nutrient yields in nearshore areas of four lakes in northern Wisconsin, 1999-2001

The effects of shoreline development on water quality and nutrient yields in nearshore areas of four lakes in northern Wisconsin were investigated from October 1999 through September 2001. The study measured surface runoff and ground-water flows from paired developed (sites containing lawn, rooftops, sidewalks, and driveways) and undeveloped (mature and immature woods) catchments adjacent to four lakes in northern Wisconsin. Water samples from surface runoff and ground water were collected and analyzed for nutrients. Coupled with water volumes, loads and subsequent yields of selected constituents were computed for developed and undeveloped catchments. The median runoff from lawn surfaces ranged from 0.0019 to 0.059 inch over the catchment area. Median surface runoff estimates from the wooded catchments were an order of magnitude less than those from the lawn catchments. The increased water volumes from the lawn catchments resulted in greater nutrient loads and subsequent annual nutrient yields from the developed sites. Soil temperature and soil moisture were measured at two sites with mixed lawn and wooded areas. At both of these sites, the area covered with a lawn commonly was warmer than the wooded area. No consistent differences in soil moisture were found. A ground-water model was constructed to simulate the local flow systems at two of the paired catchments. Model simulations showed that much of the ground water delivered to the lake originated from distant areas that did not contribute runoff directly to the lake. Surface runoff and ground-water nutrient concentrations from the lawn and wooded catchments did not have apparent patterns. Some of the median concentrations from lawns were significantly different (at the 0.05 significance level) from those at wooded catchments. Water wells and piezometers were sampled for chemical analyses three times during the study period. Variability in the shallow ground-water chemistry over time in the lawn samples was larger than samples from the wooded areas and upgradient wells. Median nutrient yields in surface runoff from lawns always were greater than those from the wooded catchments. Runoff volumes were the most important factor in determining whether lawns or wooded catchments contribute more nutrients to the lake. The ground-water system had appreciable nutrient concentrations, and are likely an important pathway for nutrient transport to the lake. The nitrate plus nitrite nitrogen and total phosphorus yields to the ground-water system from a lawn catchment were approximately 3 to 4 times greater than those from the wooded catchment. There was no difference in the yields of dissolved inorganic phosphorus to the ground-water system from the lawn and wooded catchments. Study results demonstrate that choosing the appropriate landscape position for locating lawns in sloped areas (specifically, slopes that do not terminate at the lake or areas with intervening flat or buffer zones between lawn and lake) can help reduce the adverse effect of lawns on the shallow ground water and, ultimately, the lake. Additional information would be needed to extrapolate these results to a large drainage area of a lake.

Wisconsin↗
USGS2005

Hydrologic and water-quality conditions in the Kansas River, northeast Kansas, November 2001–August 2002, and simulation of ammonia assimilative capacity and bacteria transport during low flow

Large concentrations of ammonia and densities of bacteria have been detected in reaches of the Kansas River in northeast Kansas during low streamflow conditions, prompting the Kansas Department of Health and Environment (KDHE) to list these reaches as water-quality limited with respect to ammonia and fecal coliform bacteria. Sources for ammonia and bacteria in the watershed consist of wastewater-treatment facilities (WWTFs) and agricultural and urban runoff. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with KDHE, conducted an investigation of the Kansas River to characterize hydrologic and water-quality conditions and to simulate ammonia assimilative capacity and bacteria transport during low streamflow. This report characterizes the water-quality conditions, documents the calibration of a two-dimensional water-quality model, and presents results of hypothetical simulations of existing and future WWTFs discharging to the Kansas River during low streamflow. Water samples were collected during low streamflow conditions at 50 sampling sites along and near the Kansas River between Wamego and Kansas City, Kansas, during three synoptic surveys conducted between November 2001 and August 2002. The analytical results from these samples indicated that ammonia and other nutrient concentrations and fecal coliform bacteria densities increased in the Kansas River from Wamego to Kansas City. Point sources were the primary contributors of ammonia and fecal coliform bacteria during low-flow conditions. Generally, ammonia concentrations in the Kansas River were largest at sampling sites just downstream from WWTFs. Overall, ammonia concentrations in the Kansas River, tributaries, and WWTF effluent were larger in the winter than during the summer. None of the main-stem sample concentrations exceeded the State of Kansas pH- and temperature-dependent chronic aquatic-life criteria for ammonia during the sampling periods. Other nutrients, such as total nitrogen and total phosphorus, indicated a similar, but less variable, spatial pattern along the main stem of the Kansas River, with concentrations increasing slightly downstream from major WWTFs. The temporal variance defined by the results of synoptic survey III (July 22–August 8, 2002) indicated that ammonia concentrations in the Kansas River sometimes varied daily by as much as 155 percent at a single site. Samples analyzed for densities of fecal coliform bacteria illustrated a seasonal, spatial, and temporal pattern slightly different from that of nutrients. Overall, the bacteria densities measured during the summer were larger than the densities measured in the winter. The only fecal coliform bacteria density to exceed the former State water-quality, single-sample criteria of 2,000 col/100 mL (colonies per 100 milliliters of water) was measured at 4,000 col/100 mL during synoptic III (summer 2002) on the main stem of the Kansas River at Kansas City. Temporal variability measured during synoptic survey III indicated up to a 263-percent difference in bacteria density over a 12-day period. Instantaneous loads of ammonia and bacteria were computed to determine primary inputs to the Kansas River and ammonia and bacteria decay rates in the river. The Oakland WWTF in Topeka was the largest contributor of both ammonia and bacteria on the basis of samples collected during the three synoptic surveys, except for fecal coliform bacteria collected during synoptic survey III when the DeSoto WWTF was discharging the largest concentration of bacteria. The ammonia assimilative process was about twice as effective during the summer synoptic survey than it was during the winter survey. Decay of fecal coliform bacteria density was less evident and appeared to have little seasonal effect on the basis of data collected for this report. The summer low-streamflow water-quality conditions were suitable for nitrification, algae that consume ammonia, and consequently, decaying organic matter that consume oxygen. The consumption of dissolved oxygen due to nitrification and decaying algae contributed to three measurements of dissolved oxygen that were less than the State of Kansas aquatic-life-support use criteria of 5.0 milligrams per liter. CE–QUAL–W2, a two-dimensional, hydrodynamic and water-quality model, was used to simulate ammonia and bacteria transport in the Kansas River from Topeka to Kansas City. The model was calibrated and verified using data from the three synoptic surveys. The calibrated model successfully simulated the hydrodynamics, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, and fecal coliform bacteria in the Kansas River. Simulated in-stream ammonia concentrations were compared to measured concentrations upstream to downstream along the Kansas River. The simulated in-stream ammonia concentrations mostly overestimated the measured values for both winter and summer, with a few exceptions. Comparisons between measured and simulated in-stream ammonia concentrations indicated ammonia assimilation was simulated more accurately in the summer than during the winter. Four hypothetical simulations of varied effluent discharges from existing WWTFs and addition of a proposed WWTF near DeSoto were simulated to better understand future water-quality conditions in the Kansas River. Results indicated that ammonia and dissolved-oxygen concentrations in the Kansas River will decrease from the conditions observed during synoptic surveys II (February 25 through March 1, 2002) and III (July 22 through August 8, 2002) except near the proposed WWTF where concentrations of ammonia would be near or exceed criteria for waterborne species. Effects of the proposed WWTF on dissolved oxygen would result in concentrations less than the State of Kansas aquatic-life-support use criteria of 5.0 milligrams per liter for 1 to 2 miles downstream from either of the proposed sites.

Kansas↗
USGS2016

Comparison of hydraulics and particle removal efficiencies in a mixed cell raceway and Burrows pond rearing system

We compared the hydrodynamics of replicate experimental mixed cell and replicate standard Burrows pond rearing systems at the Dworshak National Fish Hatchery, ID, in an effort to identify methods for improved solids removal. We measured and compared the hydraulic residence time, particle removal efficiency, and measures of velocity using several tools. Computational fluid dynamics was used first to characterize hydraulics in the proposed retrofit that included removal of the traditional Burrows pond dividing wall and establishment of four counter rotating cells with appropriate drains and inlet water jets. Hydraulic residence time was subsequently established in the four full scale test tanks using measures of conductivity of a salt tracer introduced into the systems both with and without fish present. Vertical and horizontal velocities were also measured with acoustic Doppler velocimetry in transects across each of the rearing systems. Finally, we introduced ABS sinking beads that simulated fish solids then followed the kinetics of their removal via the drains to establish relative purge rates. The mixed cell raceway provided higher mean velocities and a more uniform velocity distribution than did the Burrows pond. Vectors revealed well-defined, counter-rotating cells in the mixed cell raceway, and were likely contributing factors in achieving a relatively high particle removal efficiency-88.6% versus 8.0% during the test period. We speculate retrofits of rearing ponds to mixed cell systems will improve both the rearing environments for the fish and solids removal, improving the efficiency and bio-security of fish culture. We recommend further testing in hatchery production trials to evaluate fish physiology and growth.

Idaho↗
USGS2023

Near surface sediments introduce low frequency noise into gravity models

3D geologic modeling and mapping often relies on gravity modeling to identify key geologic structures, such as basin depth, fault offset, or fault dip. Such gravity models generally assume either homogeneous or spatially uncorrelated densities within modeled rock bodies and overlying sediments, with average densities typically derived from surface and drill-hole sampling. The noise contributed to the gravity anomaly by these density assumptions is zero in the homogeneous case and typically <200 μGal in the uncorrelated case. Rock bodies and sediments, however, show both a range of densities and spatial correlation of these densities, in both surface and drill-hole samples, and this correlation causes an increase in power in the low frequency content of the resulting gravity anomaly. Spatial correlation of densities can be modeled as a Gaussian random field (GRF), with the random field parameters derived from drill-hole and geologic map data. Data from alluvial fan sediments in southern Nevada indicate correlation lengths of up to 300 m in the vertical dimension and kilometers in the horizontal dimension. The resulting GRF density models show that the noise contributed to the measured gravity anomaly is of low frequency and can be several mGal in amplitude, contradicting the common attribution of lower frequencies to deeper sources. This low-frequency noise increases in power with an increase in sediment thickness. Its presence increases the ambiguity of interpretations of subsurface geologic body shape, such as basin analyses that attempt to quantify concealed basement fault depths, offsets, and dip angles. In the southwestern United States, where basin analyses are important for natural resource applications, such ambiguity increases the uncertainty of subsequent process modeling.

Applied Computing and Geosciences↗