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USGS2021

Development of aquaculture protocols and gonadal differentiation of red shiner

Developing detailed rearing methods and describing the onset of gonadal differentiation in Red Shiners Cyprinella lutrensis could facilitate the development of novel techniques to control or enhance populations, enable toxicology studies, and help construct bioassays. In this study, we develop and report aquaculture practices for Red Shiner that ensure consistent year-round production in laboratory settings and evaluate the timing of sexual differentiation via histological gonad examinations. Our methods resulted in a mean of 56.00% (SD = 8.98%) survival through the larval stages of development, and we obtained spawns from captive-reared Red Shiners 138 d posthatch. Red Shiners are gonochoristic, and both ovaries and testes differentiate directly from undifferentiated gonads. Ovaries begin to differentiate in females 45 d posthatch, while testes begin differentiating in males 105 d posthatch. This study provides in-depth protocols for the closed-cycle aquaculture of Red Shiners and describes the gonadal differentiation and development of both sexes.

Arizona↗

USGS2007

Effects of aquaculture production noise on hearing, growth, and disease resistance of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss

Intensive aquaculture production often utilizes equipment (e.g., aerators, air and water pumps, harvesters, blowers, filtration systems, and maintenance machinery) that increases noise levels in fish culture tanks. Consequently, chronic exposure to elevated noise levels in tanks could negatively impact cultured species. Possible effects include impairment of the auditory system, increased stress, and reduced growth rates. The objective of this study was to evaluate the long-term effects of sound exposure on the hearing sensitivity, growth, and survival of cultured rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Two cohorts of rainbow trout were cultured for 8??months in replicated tanks consisting of three sound treatments: 115, 130, or 150 decibels referenced at 1 micropascal (dB re 1????Pa root mean square [RMS]) levels. Auditory evoked potential (AEP) recordings revealed no significant differences in hearing thresholds resulting from exposure to increased ambient sound levels. Although there was no evident noise-induced hearing loss, there were significant differences in hearing thresholds between the two fish cohorts examined. No statistical effect of sound treatment was found for growth rate and mortality within each fish cohort. There was no significant difference in mortality between sound treatments when fish were exposed to the pathogen Yersinia ruckeri, but there was significantly different mortality between cohorts. This study indicated that rainbow trout hearing sensitivity, growth, survival, stress, and disease susceptibility were not negatively impacted by noise levels common to recirculating aquaculture systems. These findings should not be generalized to all cultured fish species, however, because many species, including catfish and cyprinids, have much greater hearing sensitivity than rainbow trout and could be affected differently by noise. ?? 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Aquaculture↗

USGS2016

Application of a fluidized bed reactor charged with aragonite for control of alkalinity, pH and carbon dioxide in marine recirculating aquaculture systems

Control of alkalinity, dissolved carbon dioxide (dCO 2 ), and pH are critical in marine recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) in order to maintain health and maximize growth. A small-scale prototype aragonite sand filled fluidized bed reactor was tested under varying conditions of alkalinity and dCO 2 to develop and model the response of dCO 2 across the reactor. A large-scale reactor was then incorporated into an operating marine recirculating aquaculture system to observe the reactor as the system moved toward equilibrium. The relationship between alkalinity dCO 2 , and pH across the reactor are described by multiple regression equations. The change in dCO 2 across the small-scale reactor indicated a strong likelihood that an equilibrium alkalinity would be maintained by using a fluidized bed aragonite reactor. The large-scale reactor verified this observation and established equilibrium at an alkalinity of approximately 135 mg/L as CaCO 3 , dCO 2 of 9 mg/L, and a pH of 7.0 within 4 days that was stable during a 14 day test period. The fluidized bed aragonite reactor has the potential to simplify alkalinity and pH control, and aid in dCO 2 control in RAS design and operation. Aragonite sand, purchased in bulk, is less expensive than sodium bicarbonate and could reduce overall operating production costs.

Aquacultural Engineering↗

USGS2023

Managing the threat of infectious disease in fisheries and aquaculture using structured decision making

Fisheries and aquaculture provide food and economic security, especially in the developing world, but both face challenges from infectious disease. Here, we consider management of disease issues from a structured decision-making perspective to examine how infectious disease can threaten seafood production and influence management decisions. For both wild fisheries and aquaculture, disease-management objectives generally aim to mitigate the severity and economic burden of outbreaks. General management strategies include manipulating host densities, reducing system connectivity, conserving or improving habitat, and implementing direct treatments or some other biological interventions. To inform decisions, mathematical models can be used to explore disease dynamics and to forecast the potential effectiveness of alternative management actions. Developing and implementing disease-management strategies also involve considering uncertainties and balancing competing stakeholder interests and risk tolerances. We conclude by outlining several steps for applying structured decision making that are broadly useful to decision makers facing issues related to disease.

Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment↗

USGS2021

Substitution of inland fisheries with aquaculture and chicken undermines human nutrition in the Peruvian Amazon

With declining capture fisheries production, maintaining nutrient supplies largely hinges on substituting wild fish with economically comparable farmed animals. Although such transitions are increasingly commonplace across global inland and coastal communities, their nutritional consequences are unknown. Here, using human demographic and health information, and fish nutrient composition data from the Peruvian Amazon, we show that substituting wild inland fisheries with chicken and aquaculture has the potential to exacerbate iron deficiencies and limit essential fatty acid supplies in a region already experiencing high prevalence of anaemia and malnutrition. Substituting wild fish with chicken, however, can increase zinc and protein supplies. Chicken and aquaculture production also increase greenhouse gas emissions, agricultural land use and eutrophication. Thus, policies that enable access to wild fisheries and their sustainable management while improving the quality, diversity and environmental impacts of farmed species will be instrumental in ensuring healthy and sustainable food systems.

Peruvian Amazon↗

USGS1996

Prevention of zebra mussel infestation and dispersal during aquaculture operations

The zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha , an exotic invasive species, poses a major threat to North American fish management programs and the aquaculture industry. Fish hatcheries may become infected with zebra mussels from a variety of sources, including the water supply, fish shipments, boats, and equipment. The hatcheries could then serve as agents for the overland dispersal of zebra mussels into stocked waters and to other fish hatcheries. We evaluated the effectiveness and safety of aquaculture chemicals for use in controlling zebra mussels in fish hatcheries and preventing dispersal of veligers during fish transport. Chemicals were evaluated for use in fish transport and as disinfectants for ponds and equipment. Standardized static toxicity tests were conducted with representative species of warmwater, coolwater, and coldwater fishes and with larval (3‐d‐old veligers), early juvenile (settling larvae), and adult zebra mussels. Chemical concentrations and exposure durations were based on recommended treatment levels for fish, eggs, and ponds. Recommended treatment levels were also exceeded, if necessary, to establish lethal levels for zebra mussels of different developmental stages. Our results indicate that some chemicals currently in use in hatcheries may be effective for controlling zebra mussels in various operations. Chloride salts were the safest and most effective therapeutants tested for use in fish transport. The toxicity of chloride salts to fish varied among species and with temperature: only one treatment regime (sodium chloride at 10,000 mg/L) was safe to all fish species that we tested, but it was only effective on veliger and settler stages of the zebra mussel. Effective disinfectants were benzalkonium chloride for use on equipment and rotenone for use in ponds after fish are harvested. The regulatory status of the identified chemicals is discussed as well as several nonchemical control alternatives.

Progressive Fish-Culturist↗

USGS1984

Chronobiologic approach to aquaculture

Diel and seasonal changes in the environment directly or indirectly control many biological functions. Chronobiology, the study of biological functions in relation to time of day, time of year, lunar phases, and other consistent cues, could have important applications in aquaculture. Physiological conditions that vary seasonally include feeding time, tolerance of fish to stress, the state of gonad development, lipid and water content of muscle tissue, and the dress‐out weight of food fish. The quality of cultured fish may vary with the time of day when fish are fed, seined, graded, treated with therapeutic chemicals, injected with hormones, or physically disturbed. Efficiency of production and quality of aquacultural products might be improved if the activities of fish husbandry were timed to coincide with the biological rhythms of fish.

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society↗

USGS2015

Ecological effects of the harvest phase of geoduck clam (Panopea generosa Gould, 1850) aquaculture on infaunal communities in southern Puget Sound, Washington USA.

Intertidal aquaculture for geoducks ( Panopea generosa Gould, 1850) is expanding in southern Puget Sound, Washington, where gently sloping sandy beaches are used for field culture. Geoduck aquaculture contributes significantly to the regional economy, but has become controversial because of a range of unresolved questions involving potential biological impacts on marine ecosystems. From 2008 through 2012, the authors used a “before-after-control-impact” experimental design, emphasizing spatial scales comparable with those used by geoduck culturists to evaluate the effects of harvesting market-ready geoducks on associated benthic infaunal communities. Infauna were sampled at three different study locations in southern Puget Sound at monthly intervals before, during, and after harvests of clams, and along extralimital transects extending away from the edges of cultured plots to assess the effects of harvest activities in adjacent uncultured habitat. Using multivariate statistical approaches, strong seasonal and spatial signals in patterns of abundance were found, but there was scant evidence of effects on the community structure associated with geoduck harvest disturbances within cultured plots. Likewise, no indications of significant “spillover” effects of harvest on uncultured habitat adjacent to cultured plots were noted. Complementary univariate approaches revealed little evidence of harvest effects on infaunal biodiversity and indications of modest effects on populations of individual infaunal taxa. Of 10 common taxa analyzed, only three showed evidence of reduced densities, although minor, after harvests whereas the remaining seven taxa indicated either neutral responses to harvest disturbances or increased abundance either during or in the months after harvest events. It is suggested that a relatively active natural disturbance regime, including both small-scale and large-scale events that occur with comparable intensity but more frequently than geoduck harvest events in cultured plots, has facilitated assemblage-level infaunal resistance and resilience to harvest disturbances.

Washington↗

USGS1995

Hydrogeology and ground-water quality in the Black Belt area of west-central Alabama, and estimated water use for aquaculture, 1990

Commercial production of catfish in west-central Alabama began about 1970, and by 1991 catfish ponds covered about 16,000 acres in the Black Belt area of the State. The rapid increase in catfish farming or aquaculture and the associated demand for ground water led the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with other Federal and State agencies in 1990 to initiate a study to better define the ground-water resources in the Black Belt area. The major aquifers in the study area are sand and gravel beds in the Eutaw, Gordo, and Coker Formations. Recharge to these aquifers occurs primarily in areas where those formations crop out. The average recharge to the major aquifers in the study area, as estimated from baseflow analysis of streams in the outcrop area, is 11.4 inches per year. Water from the major aquifers in the study area generally is of good quality and suitable for most uses. Water from the Eutaw aquifer, however, contains chloride in concentrations greater than 500 milligrams per liter in central Greene County and in downdip areas in Marengo and Wilcox Counties and is not suitable for public water supply. Some ground water with elevated chloride concentrations is used for catfish farming in these areas, however. The total estimated water use for aquaculture in the study area in 1990 was 21.83 million gallons per day, 16.08 million gallons per day from ground-water sources, and 5.75 million gallons per day from surface water sources. About 13.54 million gallons per day of water was used for filling catfish ponds and an additional 8.29 million gallons per day was used to replace evaporation losses.

Alabama↗

USGS2007

Assessment and control of an invasive aquaculture species: An update on Nile tilapia ( Oreochromis niloticus ) in coastal Mississippi after Hurricane Katrina

We provide information about the effects of Hurricane Katrina on populations of an invasive fish, the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in southern Mississippi. By resampling areas surveyed before the storm, we attempted to determine whether the species expanded its range by moving with storm-related floods. Additionally, we used rotenone to eradicate individuals of this species at a hurricane-damaged aquaculture facility on the Mississippi coast. Although our survey was limited geographically, we did not find the species to occur beyond the aquaculture facility, other than in an adjacent bayou. Our rotenone treatment of the facility appeared effective with only a single O. niloticus being collected six weeks after the treatment. To reduce the spread of O. niloticus in the southeastern U.S., it is important to continue to control feral populations, work to eliminate vectors for dispersal, and continue monitoring their distribution.

Southeastern Fishes Council Proceedings↗

USGS1991

Chemicals for worldwide aquaculture

Regulations and therapeutants or other safe chemicals that are approved or acceptable for use in the aquaculture industry in the US, Canada, Europe and Japan are presented, discussing also compounds that are unacceptable for aquaculture. Chemical use practices that could affect public health are considered and details given regarding efforts to increase the number of registered and acceptable chemicals.

Book chapter↗

USGS2018

Insight into infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) in Chinese rainbow trout aquaculture from virus isolated from 7 provinces in 2010–2014

The aquatic rhabdovirus infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) currently causes substantial fish losses in Chinese coldwater aquaculture. While IHNV was first reported in China in 1985 and has since undergone considerable spread, little is known about the underlying epidemiological patterns like introduction sources and transmission routes. In this study, we examined epidemiological and phylogenetic data for 50 IHNV isolates from 7 provinces in China detected in 2010–2014 (Liaoning, n = 33; Jilin, n = 3; Heilongjiang, n = 1; Yunnan, n = 2; Sichuan, n = 1; Hebei, n = 5; Gansu, n = 5). Features of case details include highest mortality associated with water temperatures of 8–10 °C and symptomatic disease observed in adult rainbow trout. Sequence comparisons of the midG sequences of 50 strains revealed 11 different sequence types. One sequence type, mG801J, was predominantly detected, being found in 38 of 50 isolates. Phylogenetic analyses of the new midG sequence types showed that 49 of 50 IHNV isolates are closely related to one another and all descend from the previously described J Nagano subgroup, forming the monophyletic group J Nagano-China clade . This indicates that the majority of IHNV circulating within China is descended from a single importation event from elsewhere in Asia. The one observed exception was the detection of a novel genotype belonging to the previously described MN subgroup. This genotype was identified in Liaoning province, and indicates a second introduction event, one that does not appear to have resulted in diversification and spread. These results indicate that continued surveillance of IHNV in China is necessary to understand and manage viral transmission dynamics within China over time.

Aquaculture↗

USGS2022

Development of aquaculture protocols and gonadal differentiation of green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus)

We provide detailed rearing methods and describe green sunfish ( Lepomis cyanellus ) gonadal development and histological differentiation for both sexes. Developing in-depth aquaculture protocols and describing the gonadal differentiation of green sunfish could facilitate strategies to control nuisance populations, enhance stocking programs, and provide information for this species' use in bioassay trials or toxicology studies. Our methods resulted in consistent year-round production of green sunfish and allowed us to identify the timing of their gonadal differentiation through histological assessment. Our spawning methods provided year-round volitional spawns from green sunfish broodstock. Our rearing methods involved weaning larval green sunfish off live nauplii and onto only artificial diets by 37 days post-hatch (dph). Most of the offspring generation reached sexual maturity by 213 dph. Green sunfish are gonochoristic, with testes and ovaries differentiating directly from undifferentiated gonads. Ovaries begin to differentiate by 39 dph and testes begin to differentiate by 69 dph. This information can provide biologists consistent means to produce this Centrachid and understand their gonadal development.

Aquaculture↗

USGS2016

Phosphorus removal from aquaculture effluents at the Northeast Fishery Center in Lamar, Pennsylvania using iron oxide sorption media

Three different iron oxide-based sorption media samples were tested for removal of phosphorus (P) from fish hatchery effluents using fixed bed processing. Two of the media samples were derived from residuals produced by the treatment of acid mine drainage, which were then compared to granular ferric hydroxide (GFH), a commercially available sorption medium. All of the media types removed from 50 to 70% of the P from the incoming aquaculture wastewater over 70–175 days of operation without regeneration. In some of the sorption trials, the GFH media showed superior adsorption in the earlier stages of the trial, but the GFH appeared to reach saturation more quickly, so that media performance was similar – at about 60% removal of P – over a longer time period of 175 days. Media regeneration tests were also conducted for both the commercial and mine drainage media, and demonstrated longer term performance, with overall P removal of 50–55%, over 223 days of total operation, with the advantages of phosphorus recycle and media reuse.

Pennsylvania↗

USGS2017

Investigating the influence of nitrate nitrogen on post-smolt Atlantic salmon Salmo salar reproductive physiology in water recirculation aquaculture systems

A major issue affecting land-based, closed containment Atlantic salmon Salmo salar growout production in water recirculation aquaculture systems (RAS) is precocious male maturation, which can negatively impact factors such as feed conversion, fillet yield, and product quality. Along with other water quality parameters, elevated nitrate nitrogen (NO 3 -N) has been shown to influence the reproductive development and endogenous sex steroid production in a number of aquatic animal species, including Atlantic salmon. We sought to determine whether elevated NO 3 -N in RAS can influence early maturation in post-smolt Atlantic salmon in an 8-month trial in replicated freshwater RAS. Post-smolt Atlantic salmon (102 ± 1 g) were stocked into six RAS, with three RAS randomly selected for dosing with high NO 3 -N (99 ± 1 mg/L) and three RAS set for low NO 3 -N (10 ± 0 mg/L). At 2-, 4-, 6-, and 8-months post-stocking, 5 fish were randomly sampled from each RAS, gonadosomatic index(GSI) data were collected, and plasma was sampled for 11-ketotestosterone (11-KT) quantification. At 4- and 8-months post-stocking, samples of culture tank and spring water (used as “makeup” or replacement water) were collected and tested for a suite of 42 hormonally active compounds using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry , as well as for estrogenicity using the bioluminescent yeast estrogen screen (BLYES) reporter system. Finally, at 8-months post-stocking 8–9 salmon were sampled from each RAS for blood gas and chemistry analyses, and multiple organ tissues were sampled for histopathology evaluation. Overall, sexually mature males were highly prevalent in both NO 3 -N treatment groups by study’s end, and there did not appear to be an effect of NO 3 -N on male maturation prevalence based on grilse identification, GSI, and 11-KT results, indicating that other culture parameters likely instigated early maturation. No important differences were noted between treatment groups for whole blood gas and chemistry parameters, and no significant tissue changes were noted on histopathology. No hormones, hormone conjugates, or mycotoxins were detected in any water samples; phytoestrogens were generally detected at low levels but were unrelated to NO 3 -N treatment. Finally, low-level estrogenicity was detected in RAS water, but a NO 3 -N treatment effect could not be determined. The major findings of this study are i) the NO 3 -N treatments did not appear to be related to the observed male maturation, and ii) the majority of hormonally active compounds were not detectable in RAS water.

Aquacultural Engineering↗

USGS2003

Evaluation of chemical coagulation-flocculation aids for the removal of suspended solids and phosphorus from intensive recirculating aquaculture effluent discharge

An evaluation of two commonly used coagulation-flocculation aids (alum and ferric chloride) was conducted for the supernatant overflow from settling cones used to treat the effluent from microscreen filters in an intensive recirculating aquaculture system. In addition to determining the effectiveness of these aids in removing both suspended solids and phosphorus, a systematic testing of the variables normally encountered in the coagulation-flocculation process was performed. Tests were carried out to evaluate the dosages and conditions (mixing and flocculation stirring speeds, durations, and settling times) required to achieve optimum waste capture. The orthophosphate removal efficiency for alum and ferric chloride were 89 and 93%, respectively, at a dosage of 90 mg/l. Optimum turbidity removal was achieved with a 60 mg/l dosage for both alum and ferric chloride. Both alum and ferric. chloride demonstrated excellent removal of suspended solids from initial TSS values of approximately 100-10 mg/l at a dosage of 90 mg/l. Flocculation and mixing speed played only a minor role in the removal efficiencies for both orthophosphates and suspended solids. Both coagulation-flocculation aids also exhibited excellent settling characteristics, with the majority of the floc quickly settling out in the first 5 min. ?? 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Aquacultural Engineering↗

USGS2013

Depletion of florfenicol amine in tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) maintained in a recirculating aquaculture system following Aquaflor®-medicated feed therapy

Aquaflor ® [50% w w −1 florfenicol (FFC)], is approved for use in freshwater‐reared warmwater finfish which include tilapia Oreochromis spp. in the United States to control mortality from Streptococcus iniae . The depletion of florfenicol amine (FFA), the marker residue of FFC, was evaluated after feeding FFC‐medicated feed to deliver a nominal 20 mg FFC kg −1 BW d −1 dose (1.33× the label use of 15 mg FFC kg −1 BW d −1 ) to Nile tilapia O. niloticus and hybrid tilapia O. niloticus × O. aureus held in a recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) at production‐scale holding densities. Florfenicol amine concentrations were determined in fillets taken from 10 fish before dosing and from 20 fish at nine time points after dosing (from 1 to 240 h post‐dosing). Water samples were assayed for FFC before, during and after the dosing period. Parameters monitored included daily feed consumption and biofilter function (levels of ammonia, nitrite and nitrate). Mean fillet FFA concentration decreased from 13.77 μg g −1 at 1‐h post dosing to 0.39 μg g −1 at 240‐h post dosing. Water FFC concentration decreased from a maximum of 1400 ng mL −1 at 1 day post‐dosing to 847 ng mL −1 at 240 h post‐dosing. There were no adverse effects noted on fish, feed consumption or biofilter function associated with FFC‐medicated feed administration to tilapia.

Aquaculture Research↗

USGS2012

New aquaculture drugs under FDA review

Only eight active pharmaceutical ingredients available in 18 drug products have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for use in aquaculture. The approval process can be lengthy and expensive, but several new drugs and label claims are under review. Progress has been made on approvals for Halamid (chloramine-T), Aquaflor (florfenicol) and 35% PeroxAid (hydrogen peroxide) as therapeutic drugs. Data are also being generated for AQUI-S 20E, a fish sedative.

Global Aquaculture Advocate↗