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USGS1999

Environmental processes that affect mineral deposits in the eastern United States

A thorough understanding of the environmental processes that affect mineral deposits and mine wastes has become increasingly important as the Nation wrestles with how to meet our current demand for metals without compromising the environment and how to mitigate the damage caused by the mining practices of previous generations. Regulatory requirements are dominated by empirical approaches to environmental problems associated with mining, but mitigation and reclamation can be enhanced greatly by a theoretical and conceptual understanding of the processes that affect the availability, transport, and fixation of metals and the generation of acidic waters. U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) research efforts in the Eastern United States are concentrating on environmental processes that affect a class of mineral deposits known as massive sulfide deposits. These occurrences were valued historically for their sulfur content and recently for their metals. This deposit type is a research priority because of its economic significance and high potential for adverse environmental impact due to its high sulfide content and the low acid-buffering capacity of host rocks. Numerous examples of these deposits are found in the East, including reclaimed mine sites, abandoned mines, active mines, and sites currently in the permitting process for future production. Published studies of mine drainage chemistry from the Iron Mountain massive sulfide deposit in California have documented extreme conditions of very low pH and high heavy-metal concentrations. These extreme conditions are attributed to the unique hydrologic and climatic settings of the deposit and probably are independent of the mineral deposit type. Areas currently under study include Bald Mountain, Maine, the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, the Vermont copper belt, Contrary Creek, Virginia, and Prince William Forest Park, Virginia (fig.1). Goals of the research are (1) to give land-use planners and the mining industry a better empirical framework from which to assess potential environmental impacts of mining, particularly under eastern climatic conditions, and (2) to provide a better theoretical and conceptual framework from which to design more effective and cost efficient mitigation and reclamation programs.

Information Handout↗

USGS2022

A call to record stormwater control functions and to share network data

Urban stormwater is an ongoing contributor to the degradation of the health of many watersheds and water bodies. In the United States, federal regulations (e.g., Clean Water Act) require monitoring and reporting of relevant water quality metrics in regulated waterbodies to ensure standards are being met, but decisions about how to manage urban stormwater are left up to state or other local agencies. While this allows for local adaptation and innovation, it has also lead to isolated holding of implemented stormwater control data at the city level and inconsistent terminology surrounding stormwater control measures (SCMs) between cities and regions (Fletcher et al. 2015; Minton 2000, 2007; WEF and ASCE-EWRI 2012). Particularly at this time when the types of SCMs are shifting to include smaller, distributed SCMs (Chocat et al. 2001; Delleur 2003; Roy et al. 2008; WEF and ASCE-EWRI 2012), the isolated management of SCM inventories is a significant missed opportunity to improve stormwater management through information sharing between cities, agencies, and researchers (Marsalek 2013; Minton 2000; Taira et al. 2018).

Journal of Sustainable Water in the Built Environm↗

USGS2006

Natural controls involved in shallow aquifer contamination

Shallow aquifers, commonly the most important sources of ground water, are also those most susceptible to contamination . The mode of entry of contaminants to shallow aquifers is (1) directly, via wells or secondary openings in consolidated rocks, (2) percolation through the zone of aeration, (3) induced infiltration through the zone of saturation, and (4) interaquifer leakage or flow through open holes. Natural removal or degradation of contaminants is by filtration, dispersion, sorption, ion exchange, oxidation, and various biochemical processes. These phenomena are controlled by the physical environment, structure; mineralogy, and hydraulic characteristics of the earth materials contacted by the liquid wastes. When liquid wastes enter an aquifer directly, there is little or no natural treatment by filtration, sorption, or oxidation. Purification is only by those processes that operate within the aquifer under anaerobic conditions. Contaminants from natural sources that enter aquifers under saturated‐flow conditions are degraded primarily by dilution. The natural processes effective in reducing contamination from surface‐water sources depend on the hydraulic regimen involved , which vary with individual cases. Liquid wastes percolating through the zone of aeration are those most likely to be purified by natural environment processes. Natural processes, however, do not effectively remove or degrade all contaminants, especially some of the many highly stable compounds that have gained widespread use in recent years, such as synthetic detergents. Comprehensive interdisciplinary research into the ability of various earth materials to remove many types of contaminants under varying hydrologic conditions is needed.

Groundwater↗

USGS2025

Hyperspectral imaging of river bathymetry using an ensemble of regression trees

Remote sensing has emerged as an effective tool for characterizing river systems, and machine learning (ML) techniques could make this approach even more powerful. To explore this possibility, we developed an ML-based workflow for hyperspectral imaging of river bathymetry using an ensemble of regression trees (HIRBERT). This approach involves using paired observations of depth and reflectance to select wavelength bands as predictors and then train a depth retrieval model; applying the model to the image yields a spatially continuous bathymetric map. We used data from five rivers with diverse morphologies and optical characteristics to assess whether HIRBERT can (1) provide more accurate depth estimates than a band ratio-based algorithm and (2) extend the range of depths detectable via remote sensing. Relative to single band combinations identified via optimal band ratio analysis (OBRA), regression tree ensembles improved depth retrieval performance, with observed versus predicted (OP) regression R 2 values increasing for all five sites. Similarly, HIRBERT provided more reliable depth estimates than OBRA over the full range of depths present along each river. These results suggest that by incorporating additional spectral information from multiple wavelength bands, ML could enhance bathymetric mapping across a range of river environments. In addition, we show how graphical tools can facilitate interpretation of ML-based depth retrieval models and yield insight regarding relationships between depth and reflectance. The HIRBERT workflow is packaged in free, standalone software developed to support applications in river research and management. Although ML can enhance remote sensing of river bathymetry, the limitations of this approach must also be acknowledged: Field measurements of water depth are required to train a depth retrieval model and the resulting model should only be applied to the image from which the training data were derived. The inherently image-specific nature of this approach implies that developing generalized regression tree ensembles that could be applied at larger scales would require additional research.

California, Idaho, Nebraska, Oregon, Wyoming↗

USGS2005

Arsenate adsorption mechanisms at the allophane: Water interface

We investigated arsenate (As(V)) reactivity and surface speciation on amorphous aluminosilicate mineral (synthetic allophane) surfaces using batch adsorption experiments, powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). The adsorption isotherm experiments indicated that As(V) uptake increased with increasing [As(V)] o from 50 to 1000 μM (i.e., Langmuir type adsorption isotherm) and that the total As adsorption slightly decreased with increasing NaCl concentrations from 0.01 to 0.1 M. Arsenate adsorption was initially (0−10 h) rapid followed by a slow continuum uptake, and the adsorption processes reached the steady state after 720 h. X-ray absorption spectroscopic analyses suggest that As(V) predominantly forms bidentate binuclear surface species on aluminum octahedral structures, and these species are stable up to 11 months. Solubility calculations and powder XRD analyses indicate no evidence of crystalline Al−As(V) precipitates in the experimental systems. Overall, macroscopic and spectroscopic evidence suggest that the As(V) adsorption mechanisms at the allophane−water interface are attributable to ligand exchange reactions between As(V) and surface-coordinated water molecules and hydroxyl and silicate ions. The research findings imply that dissolved tetrahedral oxyanions (e.g., H 2 PO 4 2 - and H 2 AsO 4 2 - ) are readily retained on amorphous aluminosilicate minerals in aquifer and soils at near neutral pH. The inner-sphere adsorption mechanisms might be important in controlling dissolved arsenate and phosphate in amorphous aluminosilicate-rich low-temperature geochemical environments.

Environmental Science & Technology↗

USGS2018

The U.S. Geological Survey’s Gas Hydrates Project

The Gas Hydrates Project at the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) focuses on the study of methane hydrates in natural environments. The project is a collaboration between the USGS Energy Resources and the USGS Coastal and Marine Geology Programs and works closely with other U.S. Federal agencies, some State governments, outside research organizations, and international partners. The USGS studies the formation and distribution of gas hydrates in nature, the potential of hydrates as an energy resource, and the interaction between methane hydrates and the environment. The USGS Gas Hydrates Project carries out field programs and participates in drilling expeditions to study marine and terrestrial gas hydrates. USGS scientists also acquire new geophysical data and sample sediments, the water column, and the atmosphere in areas where gas hydrates occur. In addition, project personnel analyze datasets provided by partners and manage unique laboratories that supply state-of-the-art analytical capabilities to advance national and international priorities related to gas hydrates.

Fact Sheet↗

USGS2006

The diamondback terrapin: The biology, ecology, cultural history, and conservation status of an obligate estuarine turtle

Ranging from Cape Cod to nearly the Texas-Mexico border, the diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin) is the only species of North American turtle restricted to estuarine systems. Despite this extensive distribution, its zone of occurrence is very linear, and in places fragmented, resulting in a relatively small total area of occupancy. On a global scale, excluding marine species, few turtles even venture into brackish water on a regular basis, and only two Asian species approach the North American terrapin's dependency on estuarine habitats. Here we describe some of the biological and behavioral adaptations of terrapins that allow them to live in the rather harsh estuarine environment. In this chapter we review the natural and cultural history of this turtle, discuss conservation issues, and provide information on the types of research needed to make sound management decisions for terrapin populations in peril.

Studies in Avian Biology↗

USGS2023

Per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) in Pennsylvania surface waters: A statewide assessment, associated sources, and land-use relations

The objectives of this study are to identify per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in Pennsylvania surface waters, corresponding associations with potential sources of PFAS contamination (PSOC) and other parameters, and compare raw surface water concentrations to human and ecological benchmarks. Surface water samples from 161 streams were collected in September 2019 and were analyzed for 33 target PFAS and water chemistry. Land use and physical attributes in upstream catchments and geospatial counts of PSOC in local catchments are summarized. The hydrologic yield of the sum of 33 PFAS (∑PFAS) for each stream was computed by normalizing each site's load by the drainage area of the upstream catchment. Utilizing conditional inference tree analysis, the percentage of development (>7.58 %) was identified as a primary driver of the ∑PFAS hydrologic yields. When percentage of development was removed from analysis, ∑PFAS yields were closely related to surface water chemistry associated with landscape alteration (e.g., development or agricultural cropland), such as concentrations of total nitrogen, chloride, and ammonia, but also to count of water pollution control facilities (agricultural, industrial, stormwater, and/or municipal waste pollution abatement facilities). In oil and gas development regions, ∑PFAS yields were associated with combined sewage outfalls. Sites surrounded by ≥2 electronic manufacturing facilities had elevated ∑PFAS yields (median = 241 ng/s/km 2 ). Study results are critical to guide future research, regulatory policy, best practices that will mitigate PFAS contamination, and the communication of human health and ecological risks associated with PFAS exposure from surface waters.

Pennsylvania↗

USGS1987

Movement and fate of crude-oil in contaminants in the subsurface environment at Bemidji, Minnesota: Chapter C in U.S. Geological Survey program on toxic waste--ground-water contamination: Proceedings of the Third technical meeting, Pensacola, Florida, March 23-27, 1987

On August 20, 1979, a pipeline break in a remote area near Bemidji, Minn. (fig. C-l), resulted in the release of 1.5x10 5 L (liters) of crude oil. Although about 1.1x10 5 L were removed from the site as part of the cleanup, some crude oil infiltrated the ground and percolated to the water table. The spill occurred in the recharge area of a local flow system that discharges to a small lake 300 m (meters) downgradient (Hult, 1984). The aquifer is a pitted and dissected outwash plain underlain at a depth of about 20 m by low-permeability till. Crude oil is floating on the water table about 8 m below land surface and has migrated about 20 m as a separate fluid phase. Soluble petroleum derivatives have dissolved in and are moving with ground water. Volatile constituents are migrating through the unsaturated zone by diffusion. The abstracts presented in this chapter provide an overview of ongoing efforts to combine the results of interdependent, interdisciplinary research into the comprehensive understanding of the physical, chemical, and biological processes that will be needed to develop predictive models of contaminant mobilization, transport, and fate. Franzi investigates the relationship between depositional and post-depositional processes and the heterogeneity and anisotropy of the aquifer. Post-depositional subsidence and collapse caused by melting of stagnant ice has created significant geomorphic and hydrogeologic structures. Miller describes a preliminary ground-water flow and chemical-transport model used to assess the effect of these hydrologic discontinuities, estimate aquifer properties, and to guide continuing field work. Abstracts by Siegel, Bennett, and Berndt describe studies of dissolved inorganic constituents and parameters done to characterize the geochemical environments in and around the site. An anoxic zone, probably plume shaped, extends downgradient of the oil pool and into an oxic zone that surrounds the contamination. Carbonate minerals are actively dissolving in the oxic spray zone upgradient of the oil pool where oil is being mineralized, whereas quartz is dissolving underneath the oil by organic-acid complexation. Selective leaching experiments show that fractionation of metals is also occurring where the aquifer matrix is contaminated. Morphological analysis of quartz sand grains clearly show unusual rock-water interactions are occurring in the anaerobic contaminant zone. Preliminary analysis indicates the possibility of an organic/quartz interaction that is significantly increasing the mobility of silica through the system. Predictions of the evolution and ultimate geometry of contaminant plumes resulting from spills require quantitative descriptions of the rate of mass transfer from the organic fluid to ground water. Pfannkuch presents laboratory and field work that describe how the the rate of oil dissolution, and therefore the strength of the contaminant source, is controlled by fluctuations in ground-water velocity and water-table fluctuations.

Minnesota↗

USGS2007

Geographic information systems, remote sensing, and spatial analysis activities in Texas, 2002-07

Geographic information system (GIS) technology has become an important tool for scientific investigation, resource management, and environmental planning. A GIS is a computer-aided system capable of collecting, storing, analyzing, and displaying spatially referenced digital data. GIS technology is particularly useful when analyzing a wide variety of spatial data such as with remote sensing and spatial analysis. Remote sensing involves collecting remotely sensed data, such as satellite imagery, aerial photography, or radar images, and analyzing the data to gather information or investigate trends about the environment or the Earth's surface. Spatial analysis combines remotely sensed, thematic, statistical, quantitative, and geographical data through overlay, modeling, and other analytical techniques to investigate specific research questions. It is the combination of data formats and analysis techniques that has made GIS an essential tool in scientific investigations. This document presents information about the technical capabilities and project activities of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Texas Water Science Center (TWSC) GIS Workgroup from 2002 through 2007.

Fact Sheet↗

USGS1983

Hydrologic and geomorphic studies of the Platte River basin

The channels of the Platte River and its major tributaries, the South Platte and North Platte Rivers in Colorado, Wyoming, and Nebraska, have undergone major changes in hydrologic regime and morphology since about 1860, when the water resources of the basin began to be developed for agricultural, municipal, and industrial uses. These water uses have continued to increase with growth in population and land development. Diversion of flow from channels, storage of water in reservoirs, and increased use of ground water have affected the distribution and timing of streamflows and the transport of fluvial sediments. All these factors have contributed to changes in channel geometry and the riverine environment. In 1979, the U.S. Geological Survey began investigations in the Platte River basin to determine the effects of water use on the hydrology and morphology of the Platte River and its major tributaries. These investigations also considered the relationship of hydrologic regime to factors that control or affect the habitat of migratory waterfowl in the Platte River valley. This volume brings together the results of several research studies on historical changes in channel morphology, surface-water hydrology, hydraulic geometry, sediment-transport and bedform processes, ground-water and surface-water relations, stochastic models of streamflow and precipitation, and methods for estimating discharge required to maintain channel width. In each of the studies, data on some segment of the Platte River hydrologic system were collected and interpreted. All the studies are interrelated; together they provide some degree of understanding of regime changes that are occurring. The hydrologic research described in the following chapters will be useful in decision-making pertaining to the management of water resources and migratory waterfowl habitats.

Colorado, Nebraska, Wyoming↗

USGS2019

Modelling development of riparian ranchlands using ecosystem services at the Aravaipa Watershed, SE Arizona

This paper describes how subdivision and development of rangelands within a remote and celebrated semiarid watershed near the US-Mexico border might affect multiple ecohydrological services provided, such as recharge of the aquifer, water and sediment yield, water quality, flow rates and downstream cultural and natural resources. Specifically, we apply an uncalibrated watershed model and land-change forecasting scenario to consider the potential effects of converting rangelands to housing developments and document potential changes in hydrological ecosystem services. A new method to incorporate weather data in watershed modelling is introduced. Results of introducing residential development in this fragile arid environment portray changes in the water budget, including increases in surface-water runoff, water yield, and total sediment loading. Our findings also predict slight reductions in lateral soil water, a component of the water budget that is increasingly becoming recognized as critical to maintaining water availability in arid regions. We discuss how the proposed development on shrub/scrub rangelands could threaten to sever imperative ecohydrological interactions and impact multiple ecosystem services. This research highlights rangeland management issues important for the protection of open-space, economic valuation of rangeland ecosystem services, conservation easements, and incentives to develop markets for these.

Arizona↗

USGS2009

Geographic information systems, remote sensing, and spatial analysis activities in Texas, 2008-09

Geographic information system (GIS) technology has become an important tool for scientific investigation, resource management, and environmental planning. A GIS is a computer-aided system capable of collecting, storing, analyzing, and displaying spatially referenced digital data. GIS technology is useful for analyzing a wide variety of spatial data. Remote sensing involves collecting remotely sensed data, such as satellite imagery, aerial photography, or radar images, and analyzing the data to gather information or investigate trends about the environment or the Earth's surface. Spatial analysis combines remotely sensed, thematic, statistical, quantitative, and geographical data through overlay, modeling, and other analytical techniques to investigate specific research questions. It is the combination of data formats and analysis techniques that has made GIS an essential tool in scientific investigations. This fact sheet presents information about the technical capabilities and project activities of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Texas Water Science Center (TWSC) GIS Workgroup during 2008 and 2009. After a summary of GIS Workgroup capabilities, brief descriptions of activities by project at the local and national levels are presented. Projects are grouped by the fiscal year (October-September 2008 or 2009) the project ends and include overviews, project images, and Internet links to additional project information and related publications or articles.

Fact Sheet↗

USGS2011

Geospatial characteristics of Florida's coastal and offshore environments: Distribution of important habitats for coastal and offshore biological resources and offshore sand resources

The Geospatial Characteristics GeoPDF of Florida's Coastal and Offshore Environments is a comprehensive collection of geospatial data describing the political boundaries and natural resources of Florida. This interactive map provides spatial information on bathymetry, sand resources, and locations of important habitats (for example, Essential Fish Habitats (EFH), nesting areas, strandings) for marine invertebrates, fish, reptiles, birds, and marine mammals. The map should be useful to coastal resource managers and others interested in marine habitats and submerged obstructions of Florida's coastal region. In particular, as oil and gas explorations continue to expand, the map can be used to explore information regarding sensitive areas and resources in the State of Florida. Users of this geospatial database will have access to synthesized information in a variety of scientific disciplines concerning Florida's coastal zone. This powerful tool provides a one-stop assembly of data that can be tailored to fit the needs of many natural resource managers. The map was originally developed to assist the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation, and Enforcement (BOEMRE) and coastal resources managers with planning beach restoration projects. The BOEMRE uses a systematic approach in planning the development of submerged lands of the Continental Shelf seaward of Florida's territorial waters. Such development could affect the environment. BOEMRE is required to ascertain the existing physical, biological, and socioeconomic conditions of the submerged lands and estimate the impact of developing these lands. Data sources included the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, BOEMRE, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Florida Geographic Data Library, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Florida Natural Areas Inventory, and the State of Florida, Bureau of Archeological Research. Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) compliant metadata are provided as attached xml files for all geographic information system (GIS) layers.

Florida↗

USGS2011

Geospatial characteristics of Florida's coastal and offshore environments: Coastal habitats, artificial reefs, wrecks, dumping grounds, harbor obstructions and offshore sand resources

The Geospatial Characteristics GeoPDF of Florida's Coastal and Offshore Environments is a comprehensive collection of geospatial data describing the political boundaries and natural resources of Florida. This interactive map provides spatial information on bathymetry, sand resources, coastal habitats, artificial reefs, shipwrecks, dumping grounds, and harbor obstructions. The map should be useful to coastal resource managers and others interested in marine habitats and submerged obstructions of Florida's coastal region. In particular, as oil and gas explorations continue to expand, the map may be used to explore information regarding sensitive areas and resources in the State of Florida. Users of this geospatial database will have access to synthesized information in a variety of scientific disciplines concerning Florida's coastal zone. This powerful tool provides a one-stop assembly of data that can be tailored to fit the needs of many natural resource managers. The map was originally developed to assist the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation, and Enforcement (BOEMRE) and coastal resources managers with planning beach restoration projects. The BOEMRE uses a systematic approach in planning the development of submerged lands of the Continental Shelf seaward of Florida's territorial waters. Such development could affect the environment. BOEMRE is required to ascertain the existing physical, biological, and socioeconomic conditions of the submerged lands and estimate the impact of developing these lands. Data sources included the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, BOEMRE, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Florida Geographic Data Library, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Florida Natural Areas Inventory, and the State of Florida, Bureau of Archeological Research. Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) compliant metadata are provided as attached xml files for all geographic information system (GIS) layers.

Florida↗

USGS2016

Identifying and preserving high-water mark data

High-water marks provide valuable data for understanding recent and historical flood events. The proper collection and recording of high-water mark data from perishable and preserved evidence informs flood assessments, research, and water resource management. Given the high cost of flooding in developed areas, experienced hydrographers, using the best available techniques, can contribute high-quality data toward efforts such as public education of flood risk, flood inundation mapping, flood frequency computations, indirect streamflow measurement, and hazard assessments. This manual presents guidance for skilled high-water mark identification, including marks left behind in natural and man-made environments by tranquil and rapid flowing water. This manual also presents pitfalls and challenges associated with various types of flood evidence that help hydrographers identify the best high-water marks and assess the uncertainty associated with a given mark. Proficient high-water mark data collection contributes to better understanding of the flooding process and reduces risk through greater ability to estimate flood probability. The U.S. Geological Survey, operating the Nation’s premier water data collection network, encourages readers of this manual to familiarize themselves with the art and science of high-water mark collection. The U.S. Geological survey maintains a national database at http://water.usgs.gov/floods/FEV/ that includes high-water mark information for many flood events, and local U.S. Geological Survey Water Science Centers can provide information to interested readers about participation in data collection and flood documentation efforts as volunteers or observers.

Techniques and Methods↗

USGS2014

Limnogeology, news in brief

We've invited Michael R. Rosen, water quality specialist within the USGS Water Science Field Team in Carson City and Elizabeth Gierlowski-Kordesch, professor of geology at Ohio University, to take a look at the intriguing new developments that are emerging in limnogeologic studies. These studies are increasing our understanding of how climate and movements of the Earth's surface influence terrestrial environments, as well as how contaminants are distributed and retained in the environment. They present a selection of recent significant research on sediments, rock, and biota that have been preserved in modern and ancient lake basins.

Environmental Earth Sciences↗

USGS2009

USGS Science: Addressing Our Nation's Challenges

With 6.6 billion people already living on Earth, and that number increasing every day, human influence on our planet is ever more apparent. Changes to the natural world combined with increasing human demands threaten our health and safety, our national security, our economy, and our quality of life. As a planet and a Nation, we face unprecedented challenges: loss of critical and unique ecosystems, the effects of climate change, increasing demand for limited energy and mineral resources, increasing vulnerability to natural hazards, the effects of emerging diseases on wildlife and human health, and growing needs for clean water. The time to respond to these challenges is now, but policymakers and decisionmakers face difficult choices. With competing priorities to balance, and potentially serious - perhaps irreversible - consequences at stake, our leaders need reliable scientific information to guide their decisions. As the Nation's earth and natural science agency, the USGS monitors and conducts scientific research on natural hazards and resources and how these elements and human activities influence our environment. Because the challenges we face are complex, the science needed to better understand and deal with these challenges must reflect the complex interplay among natural and human systems. With world-class expertise in biology, geology, geography, hydrology, geospatial information, and remote sensing, the USGS is uniquely capable of conducting the comprehensive scientific research needed to better understand the interdependent interactions of Earth's systems. Every day, the USGS helps decisionmakers to minimize loss of life and property, manage our natural resources, and protect and enhance our quality of life. This brochure provides examples of the challenges we face and how USGS science helps decisionmakers to address these challenges.

General Information Product↗