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USGS2009

Absolute stellar photometry on moderate-resolution FPA images

An extensive database of star (and Moon) images has been collected by the ground-based RObotic Lunar Observatory (ROLO) as part of the US Geological Survey program for lunar calibration. The stellar data are used to derive nightly atmospheric corrections for the observations from extinction measurements, and absolute calibration of the ROLO sensors is based on observations of Vega and published reference flux and spectrum data. The ROLO telescopes were designed for imaging the Moon at moderate resolution, thus imposing some limitations for the stellar photometry. Attaining accurate stellar photometry with the ROLO image data has required development of specialized processing techniques. A key consideration is consistency in discriminating the star core signal from the off-axis point spread function. The analysis and processing methods applied to the ROLO stellar image database are described. ?? 2009 BIPM and IOP Publishing Ltd.

Metrologia↗

USGS2009

Fast forward modeling of Titan's infrared spectra to invert VIMS/Cassini hyperspectral images

The surface of Titan, the largest icy moon of Saturn, is veiled by a very thick and hazy atmosphere. The Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer onboard the Cassini spacecraft, in orbit around Saturn since July 2004, conduct an intensive survey of Titan with the objective to understand the complex nature of the atmosphere and surface of the mysterious moon and the way they interact. Accurate radiative transfer modeling is necessary to analyze Titan's infrared spectra, but are often very computer resources demanding. As Cassini has gathered hitherto millions of spectra of Titan and will still observe it until at least 2010, we report here on the development of a new rapid, simple and versatile radiative transfer model specially designed to invert VIMS datacubes. ?? 2009 IEEE.

Conference Paper↗

USGS2010

Meteorite and meteoroid: New comprehensive definitions

Meteorites have traditionally been defined as solid objects that have fallen to Earth from space. This definition, however, is no longer adequate. In recent decades, man-made objects have fallen to Earth from space, meteorites have been identified on the Moon and Mars, and small interplanetary objects have impacted orbiting spacecraft. Taking these facts and other potential complications into consideration, we offer new comprehensive definitions of the terms "meteorite,""meteoroid," and their smaller counterparts: A meteoroid is a 10-??m to 1-m-size natural solid object moving in interplanetary space. A micrometeoroid is a meteoroid 10 ??m to 2 mm in size. A meteorite is a natural, solid object larger than 10 ??m in size, derived from a celestial body, that was transported by natural means from the body on which it formed to a region outside the dominant gravitational influence of that body and that later collided with a natural or artificial body larger than itself (even if it is the same body from which it was launched). Weathering and other secondary processes do not affect an object's status as a meteorite as long as something recognizable remains of its original minerals or structure. An object loses its status as a meteorite if it is incorporated into a larger rock that becomes a meteorite itself. A micrometeorite is a meteorite between 10 ??m and 2 mm in size. Meteorite- "a solid substance or body falling from the high regions of the atmosphere" (Craig 1849); "[a] mass of stone and iron that ha[s] been directly observed to have fallen down to the Earth's surface" (translated from Cohen 1894); "[a] solid bod[y] which came to the earth from space" (Farrington 1915); "A mass of solid matter, too small to be considered an asteroid; either traveling through space as an unattached unit, or having landed on the earth and still retaining its identity" (Nininger 1933); "[a meteoroid] which has reached the surface of the Earth without being vaporized" (1958 International Astronomical Union (IAU) definition, quoted by Millman 1961); "a solid body which has arrived on the Earth from outer space" (Mason 1962); "[a] solid bod[y] which reach[es] the Earth (or the Moon, Mars, etc.) from interplanetary space and [is] large enough to survive passage through the Earth's (or Mars', etc.) atmosphere" (Gomes and Keil 1980); "[a meteoroid] that survive[s] passage through the atmosphere and fall[s] to earth" (Burke 1986); "a recovered fragment of a meteoroid that has survived transit through the earth's atmosphere" (McSween 1987); "[a] solid bod[y] of extraterrestrial material that penetrate[s] the atmosphere and reach[es] the Earth's surface" (Krot et al. 2003). ?? The Meteoritical Society, 2010.

Meteoritics and Planetary Science↗

USGS2004

Assessment of uncertainty in ROLO lunar irradiance for on-orbit calibration

A system to provide radiometric calibration of remote sensing imaging instruments on-orbit using the Moon has been developed by the US Geological Survey RObotic Lunar Observatory (ROLO) project. ROLO has developed a model for lunar irradiance which treats the primary geometric variables of phase and libration explicitly. The model fits hundreds of data points in each of 23 VNIR and 9 SWIR bands; input data are derived from lunar radiance images acquired by the project's on-site telescopes, calibrated to exoatmospheric radiance and converted to disk-equivalent reflectance. Experimental uncertainties are tracked through all stages of the data processing and modeling. Model fit residuals are ???1% in each band over the full range of observed phase and libration angles. Application of ROLO lunar calibration to SeaWiFS has demonstrated the capability for long-term instrument response trending with precision approaching 0.1% per year. Current work involves assessing the error in absolute responsivity and relative spectral response of the ROLO imaging systems, and propagation of error through the data reduction and modeling software systems with the goal of reducing the uncertainty in the absolute scale, now estimated at 5-10%. This level is similar to the scatter seen in ROLO lunar irradiance comparisons of multiple spacecraft instruments that have viewed the Moon. A field calibration campaign involving NASA and NIST has been initiated that ties the ROLO lunar measurements to the NIST (SI) radiometric scale.

Conference Paper↗

USGS1974

Mercury's surface: Preliminary description and interpretation from Mariner 10 pictures

The surface morphology and optical properties of Mercury resemble those of the moon in remarkable detail and record a very similar sequence of events. Chemical and mineralogical similarity of the outer layers of Mercury and the moon is implied; Mercury is probably a differentiated planet with a large iron-rich core. Differentiation is inferred to have occurred very early. No evidence of atmospheric modification of landforms has been found. Large-scale scarps and ridges unlike lunar or Martian features may reflect a unique period of planetary compression near the end of heavy bombardment by small planetesimals.

Science↗

USGS1973

Nodal tidal cycle of 18.6 yr.: Its importance in sea-level curves of the east coast of the United States and its value in explaining long-term sea-level changes

The 18.6-yr cycle of the Moon's nodes dominates the annual means of high water, low water, and range at Boston and at other East Coast harbors. The maxima and minima of the high-water and range curves agree closely with the 180° and 0° long. yr, respectively, of the Moon's ascending node, and are fairly well accounted for by tide-prediction equations. The curve of annual mean sea level also reflects the cycle, but more weakly. Recognition of the cyclical nature of tidal data both simplifies and clarifies assessments of longer term sea-level trends and points to the need to include only multiples of entire cycles in the computations of these trends. When the curves of mean high water and range are used, it is possible to recognize long-term sea-level trends rapidly and to determine whether these are attributable to tidal or nontidal causes. The data suggest that the secular sea-level rise during the 20th century is tidal in origin and may be caused by vertical movement of the oceanic floor. This has the effect of reducing the volume of ocean basins, and, by changing basin geometry, alters the characteristics of terrestrial tidal constituents (standing waves).

Atlantic Ocean↗

USGS2019

Walk in the footsteps of the Apollo astronauts: A field guide to northern Arizona astronaut training sites

Every astronaut who walked on the Moon trained in Flagstaff, AZ. In the early 1960s, scientists at the newly formed United States Geological Survey (USGS) Branch of Astrogeology led this training, teaching geologic principals and field techniques to the astronaut crews. USGS scientists and engineers also developed and tested scientific instrument prototypes, and communication and transportation technologies that would aid in lunar exploration. Astronomers and cartographers based at the USGS and Lowell Observatory, using telescopes at Lowell Observatory and the U.S. Naval Observatory, also played a key role, preparing lunar navigation charts and landing site maps. This historical / educational field trip will take participants along a historical path to some of the key sites where the Apollo astronauts trained. Field trip participants will see: (1) Grover, the geologic rover simulator on which the Apollo astronauts trained, which is on display at the USGS Astrogeology Science Center; (2) Telescopes at Lowell Observatory used to map the lunar surface, as well as some of the original airbrushed maps; (3) the Bonito Lava Flow training area at Sunset Crater Volcano National Monument; (4) the Cinder Lake crater field, which was created in 1967 to simulate the lunar landscape for training astronauts and testing equipment; and (5) Meteor Crater, the best-preserved exposed impact crater on Earth. During this field trip, as we celebrate the 50th anniversary of one of the most remarkable events and most significant achievements in the history of humankind, we hope that the sites we visit will connect participants with the experiences of the astronauts, and the excitement and inspiration of the origins of human space exploration. We also hope to communicate the historical significance of these sites, facilitate continued visitation of the sites (e.g. through class field trips), and educate the broader scientific and science education communities about the role that Flagstaff scientists and engineers played in the Apollo expeditions to the Moon.

Arizona↗

USGS1998

Early life history stages of Gulf sturgeon in the Suwannee River, Florida

Egg sampling confirmed that Suwannee River Gulf sturgeon Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi , a subspecies of Atlantic sturgeon A. o. oxyrinchus use the same spawning site at river kilometer (rkm) 215 from the mouth of the river each year. Forty-nine eggs were recorded in 1995, and 368 were recorded in 1996. Spawning began 4–7 d after the March new moon in both years and lasted 10–11 d; in 1996, a second 10-d spawning round began on the April new moon. Developmental synchrony among eggs recovered suggested several discrete spawning events in both years. Total eggs deposited for three 1996 sampling days was estimated as 405,600–711,000/d, approximating the fecundity range of a large female Gulf sturgeon . Eggs were found only in the southern half of the river , an area with surface currents of 0.5–1.5 m/s and numerous eddies producing reverse bottom currents of 0.1–0.5 m/s. Egg substrate consisted of bedrock limestone thinly overlain by fine sand and densely distributed elliptical gravel 2–10 cm in diameter. Eggs were found predominantly in depths of 2–4 m at water temperatures of 17–21°C, conductivities of 50–100 μS, and dissolved oxygen levels exceeding 5.0 mg/L. The Cody Scarp, 15 rkm above the spawning ground, may mark the upstream limit of spawning areas in the river . Three 2–4-month-old riverine juveniles (82–115 mm total length, TL) collected are the smallest yet captured from any river . Data for 18 riverine age-0 juveniles (to 350 mm TL) suggest that this stage lasts 6–10 months, terminating with migration of fish to the river mouth in January–February. Less than 2% of 461 juveniles captured at the estuarine river mouth (1990–1993) were under 350 mm TL. Riverine age-0 fish were collected over long shallow stretches (typically <4 m deep) of relatively barren sand (rkm 12–238).

Florida↗

USGS2004

Acoustic-tracking and radio-tracking of horseshoe crabs to assess spawning behavior and subtidal habitat use in delaware bay

This study used telemetry to determine spawning behavior and subtidal habitat use of horseshoe crabs Limulus polyphemus. We attached combined acoustic and radio transmitters to 12 gravid female horseshoe crabs at Ted Harvey Beach and 12 at North Bowers Beach (both on the western shore of Delaware Bay) over a 5-d period before peak spawning on the new moon. Horseshoe crabs were acoustically tracked and radio-tracked daily for 8 d during both high tides and during the incoming dominant (higher) high tide. All horseshoe crabs were relocated at least once, and 83% of females spawned from two to six times (x?? = 3.35, SE = 0.18). Of these females, 85% spawned on two to five consecutive nights (x?? = 3.31, SE = 0.59). Most (95%) females spawned on the beaches where they were initially tagged. Typically, the shoreline used by an individual for spawning ranged from 70 to 1,160 m (x?? = 351 m, SE = 38 m). Between spawning events, horseshoe crabs remained 50-715 m offshore (x?? = 299 m, SE = 57 m) from their established spawning beaches. Following the new moon, all but one (96%) moved out of range of our survey area, which extended approximately 1 km from the shoreline. Multistate mark-recapture models were used to estimate recapture probabilities and daily probabilities of spawning and departure from the vicinity of the spawning beaches. The probability of recapture by acoustic telemetry was high and estimated to be 0.95 (95% confidence interval, 0.73-0.99). Horseshoe crabs equipped with acoustic and radio transmitters have high rates of recapture, can be tracked continually, and can be relocated in both foreshore and inshore habitats.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗

USGS2005

Modeling anuran detection and site occupancy on North American Amphibian Monitoring Program (NAAMP) routes in Maryland

One of the most fundamental problems in monitoring animal populations is that of imperfect detection. Although imperfect detection can be modeled, studies examining patterns in occurrence often ignore detection and thus fail to properly partition variation in detection from that of occurrence. In this study, we used anuran calling survey data collected on North American Amphibian Monitoring Program routes in eastern Maryland to investigate factors that influence detection probability and site occupancy for 10 anuran species. In 2002, 17 calling survey routes in eastern Maryland were surveyed to collect environmental and species data nine or more times. To analyze these data, we developed models incorporating detection probability and site occupancy. The results suggest that, for more than half of the 10 species, detection probabilities vary most with season (i.e., day-of-year), air temperature, time, and moon illumination, whereas site occupancy may vary by the amount of palustrine forested wetland habitat. Our results suggest anuran calling surveys should document air temperature, time of night, moon illumination, observer skill, and habitat change over time, as these factors can be important to model-adjusted estimates of site occupancy. Our study represents the first formal modeling effort aimed at developing an analytic assessment framework for NAAMP calling survey data.

Maryland↗

USGS2016

Detection rates of geckos in visual surveys: Turning confounding variables into useful knowledge

Transect surveys without some means of estimating detection probabilities generate population size indices prone to bias because survey conditions differ in time and space. Knowing what causes such bias can help guide the collection of relevant survey covariates, correct the survey data, anticipate situations where bias might be unacceptably large, and elucidate the ecology of target species. We used negative binomial regression to evaluate confounding variables for gecko (primarily Hemidactylus frenatus and Lepidodactylus lugubris) counts on 220-m-long transects surveyed at night, primarily for snakes, on 9,475 occasions. Searchers differed in gecko detection rates by up to a factor of six. The worst and best headlamps differed by a factor of at least two. Strong winds had a negative effect potentially as large as those of searchers or headlamps. More geckos were seen during wet weather conditions, but the effect size was small. Compared with a detection nadir during waxing gibbous (nearly full) moons above the horizon, we saw 28% more geckos during waning crescent moons below the horizon. A sine function suggested that we saw 24% more geckos at the end of the wet season than at the end of the dry season. Fluctuations on a longer timescale also were verified. Disturbingly, corrected data exhibited strong short-term fluctuations that covariates apparently failed to capture. Although some biases can be addressed with measured covariates, others will be difficult to eliminate as a significant source of error in longterm monitoring programs.

Andersen Air Force Base↗

USGS2011

Episodic soil succession on basaltic lava fields in a cool, dry environment

Holocene- to late Pleistocene-aged lava flows at Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve provide an ideal setting to examine the early stages of soil formation under cool, dry conditions. Transects were used to characterize the amount and nature of soil cover on across basaltic lava flows ranging in age from 2.1 to 18.4 ka. Results indicate that on flows <13 ka, very shallow organic soils (Folists in Soil Taxonomy) are the dominant soil type, providing an areal coverage of up to &sim;25%. On flows ≥13.9 ka, deeper mineral soils including Entisols, Aridisols, and Mollisols become dominant and the areal extent increases to ≥95% on flows older than 18.4 ka. These data suggest there are two distinct pedogenic pathways associated with lava flows of the region. The first pathway is illustrated by the younger flows, where Folists dominate. In the absence of a major source of loess, relatively little mineral material accumulates and soils provide only minor coverage of the lava flows. Our results indicate that this pathway of soil development has not changed appreciably over the past &sim;10 ka. The second pedogenic pathway is illustrated by the flows older than 13.9 ka. These flows have been subject to deposition of large quantities of loess during and after the last regional glaciation, resulting in almost complete coverage. Subsequent pedogenesis has given rise to Aridisols and Mollisols with calcic and cambic horizons and mollic epipedons. This research highlights the importance of regional climate change on the evolution of Craters of the Moon soilscapes.

Idaho↗

USGS2023

The lunar cratering chronology

This chapter provides an introduction to crater-size frequency distribution (CSFD) measurements and presents a review of the work performed on dating lunar geological units using CSFDs since the last New Views of the Moon volume (2006), including various volcanic and tectonic features, as well as individual impact craters. At the end of the chapter, implications for the new CSFD age determinations for the geologic history and evolution of the Moon are discussed.

Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry↗

USGS2023

Lunar mare basaltic volcanism: Volcanic features and emplacement processes

Volcanism is a fundamental process in the geological evolution of the Moon, providing clues to the composition and structure of the mantle, the location and duration of interior melting, the nature of convection and lunar thermal evolution. Progress in understanding volcanism has been remarkable in the short 60-year span of the Space Age. Before Sputnik 1 in 1957, the lunar farside was unknown, the origin of the dark lunar maria was debated (sedimentary or volcanic), and significant controversy surrounded the question of how the multitude of craters on the surface formed. Was the Moon formed hot or cold, was the lunar surface young or old, were the craters of impact or volcanic origin? A lunar farside deficient in the darker maria was revealed by Luna 3 in 1959 ( Lipsky 1965a , b ). The Ranger, Lunar Orbiter, Surveyor, Luna and Zond missions significantly augmented pre-Sputnik telescopic observations and began to reveal the diversity of lunar geologic landforms. Return of lunar soil and rock samples from the lunar surface by Apollo (11–12, 14–17) ( Compton 1989 ) and Luna (16, 20, 24) missions ( Harvey 2007a , b ; Huntress and Marov 2011 ) changed the debates overnight ( Hinners 1971 ; Taylor 1975 ). The lunar rocks were igneous and extremely ancient, all from the first half of Solar System history; the oldest, highland anorthosites, were overlain by relatively younger, but still extremely old, extrusive basalts forming the maria.

Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry↗

USGS1992

Planetary maps

An important goal of the USGS planetary mapping program is to systematically map the geology of the Moon, Mars, Venus, and Mercury, and the satellites of the outer planets. These geologic maps are published in the USGS Miscellaneous Investigations (I) Series. Planetary maps on sale at the USGS include shaded-relief maps, topographic maps, geologic maps, and controlled photomosaics. Controlled photomosaics are assembled from two or more photographs or images using a network of points of known latitude and longitude. The images used for most of these planetary maps are electronic images, obtained from orbiting television cameras, various optical-mechanical systems. Photographic film was only used to map Earth's Moon.

General Information Product↗

USGS1995

Gazetteer of planetary nomenclature 1994

Planetary nomenclature, like terrestrial nomenclature, is used to uniquely identify a feature on the surface of a planet or satellite so that the feature can be easily located, described, and discussed. This volume contains detailed information about all names of topographic and albedo features on planets and satellites (and some planetary ring and ring-gap systems) that the International Astronomical Union has named and approved from its founding in 1919 through its triennial meeting in 1994. This edition of the Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature supersedes an earlier informal volume distributed by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1986 as Open-File Report 84-692 (Masursky and others, 1986). Named features are depicted on maps of the Moon published first by the U.S. Defense Mapping Agency or the Aeronautical Chart and Information Center and more recently by the U.S. Geological Survey; on maps of Mercury, Venus, Mars, and the satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus published by the U.S. Geological Survey; and on maps of the Moon, Venus, and Mars produced by the U.S.S.R. Although we have attempted to check the accuracy of all data in this volume, we realize that some errors will remain in a work of this size. Readers noting errors or omissions are urged to communicate them to the U.S. Geological Survey, Branch of Astrogeology, Rm. 409, 2255 N. Gemini Drive, Flagstaff, AZ 86001.

Bulletin↗

USGS2017

The U.S. Geological Survey Astrogeology Science Center

In 1960, Eugene Shoemaker and a small team of other scientists founded the field of astrogeology to develop tools and methods for astronauts studying the geology of the Moon and other planetary bodies. Subsequently, in 1962, the U.S. Geological Survey Branch of Astrogeology was established in Menlo Park, California. In 1963, the Branch moved to Flagstaff, Arizona, to be closer to the young lava flows of the San Francisco Volcanic Field and Meteor Crater, the best preserved impact crater in the world. These geologic features of northern Arizona were considered good analogs for the Moon and other planetary bodies and valuable for geologic studies and astronaut field training. From its Flagstaff campus, the USGS has supported the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) space program with scientific and cartographic expertise for more than 50 years.

Fact Sheet↗

USGS2018

Geologic map of the north half of the Lake Walcott 30'×60' quadrangle, Idaho

The geologic map of the northern half of the Lake Walcott 30ʹ×60ʹ quadrangle shows the volcanic geology of the southern part of the Craters of the Moon lava field, the complex geologic features of the Holocene Kings Bowl and Wapi lava fields, and the southern part of the Great Rift volcanic rift zone. The long extent and distribution of skylights in lava-tube systems of the Horse Butte and Wapi Park lava fields are depicted on this map. 40 Ar/ 39 Ar and K/Ar age determinations give detail to the Holocene, late Pleistocene, and late middle Pleistocene volcanic lava fields in this quadrangle. Most of the younger basalt eruptions (less than 150 thousand years [ka]) have occurred along the Great Rift volcanic rift zone, but two of the younger lava fields are located in the western part of the quadrangle. Kimama Butte, a shield volcano, is 87±11 ka, and Shale Butte is dated at 11±6 ka. Paleomagnetic studies have shown that the Horse Butte-Inferno Chasm eruptive fissure system has at least five paleomagnetic-correlative lava fields, the Claasen vent complex consists of at least seven correlative lava fields, and the Streifling-Flat Top vent complex includes at least four correlative lava fields. This map provides geologic, geochronologic, and paleomagnetic data for Holocene lava fields along the southern part of the Great Rift, and for late Pleistocene and late middle Pleistocene lava fields in the central and western parts of the quadrangle. These data can contribute to wise management and preservation of the Craters of the Moon National Monument and for broad-scale understanding of the basaltic-volcanic evolution of the eastern Snake River Plain.

Idaho↗