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At least 181 records · Page 10Linked to original sources
USGS1992

Four new species of frogs and one new species of snake from the Chapare region of Bolivia, with notes on other species

We report on a collection of 74 frogs, 11 lots of frog eggs or tadpoles, and two snakes collected from the Chapare Region in the yungas of the eastern Andean Cordillera de Cochabamba, Bolivia. Collecting localities range from approximately 300 m to >3200 m in elevation. The specimens pertain to 23 species, probably 10 of which are undescribed. We describe four new species of frogs, one each in the genera Bufo, Centrolenella, Colostethus, and Hyla, and one new species of snake, genus Dipsas. We place Atelopus rugulosus in synonymy with A. tricolor.

Herpetological Monographs↗
USGS1991

Ecology of the island night lizard, Xantusia riversiana, on Santa Barbara Island, California

We studied the population biology and ecology of the island night lizard (Xantusia riversiana) on Santa Barbara Island, California from 1981-1988. We trapped all the major habitats on the island, using pitfall traps and Sherman small mammal traps. In addition to permanently marking individuals by toe-clipping, we used specialized marking techniques on some individuals (fluorescent powder and radioactive tags) to study home range, movement and activity patterns. Island night lizards are exclusively diurnal and exceedingly secretive. Though generally cryptic in coloration, their dorsal coloration is highly variable. They occur most commonly in habitats providing dense vegetative cover (thickets of boxthorn and prickly pear) and in certain types of rock habitat. Night lizards are sedentary and have very small home ranges (x̄=17.2m 2 ). They are slow-growing with some individuals living to at least 12 years old. The most common injuries (tail and scale injuries) apparently result from intraspecific fighting. A wide variety of terrestrial spiders and insects make up the majority of their diet, but they also feed on an unusually large amount of plant material for a small lizard. Because of their diverse diet, low metabolic rate and small, overlapping home ranges, they reach greater densities (>3200 lizards/ha in boxthorn) than previously reported for any other ground-dwelling lizard. Favorable habitat has been reduced because of past farming and grazing, but, given their wide distribution on the island, exceptionally high densities and current protection within a National Park, X. riversiana on Santa Barbara Island are not threatened with extinction, as was previously thought.

Herpetological Monographs↗
USGS1985

Interspecific competition among Hawaiian forest birds

The object of this study was to determine whether interspecific competition modified local geographic distribution, after taking into account the effect of habitat structure. The tendencies for 14 passerine birds to have positive or negative associations were examined, using 7861 sample points in seven native forests on the islands of Hawaii, Maui, and Kauai. All birds were at least partly insectivorous and were fairly common in forested areas, although some fed chiefly on nectar or fruit. Species—pairs were classified as primary or secondary potential competitors based on general dietary similarity. To evaluate the association between species and to account for the effect of individual species habitat preferences, partial correlations were computed for each species—pair in a study area from the simple correlations between the species and 26 habitat variables plus two quadratic terms to represent nonlinearity. The partial correlations represented a short—term ("instantaneous") assessment of the strength of competitive interactions, and did not reflect the accumulation of competitive displacement through time. Of 170 partial correlations in the analysis, only 10 indicated significant negative association. The general pattern was of positive association (76 significantly positive partials), which probably resulted from flocking and from attraction of birds to areas of resource superabundance. Two species showed consistent patterns of negative partial correlations over several adjacent study areas, the Japanese White—eye/Iiwi in montane Hawaii, and the Japanese White—eye/Elepaio in windward Hawaii; both patterns could be reasonably attributed to direct competition. Species—pairs were grouped by the native or exotic status of the component species. Native/exotic pairs had a significantly greater proportion of negative partial correlations (37%) than either native/native pairs (8%) or exotic/exotic pairs (0%). This pattern was consistent across the seven study areas and appeared to reflect the occurrence of interspecific competition along a broad and diffuse ecological "front" between a co—evolved native avifauna and recently introduced exotic species. The role of competition in the pattern was corroborated by the significantly higher proportion of negative partial correlations among species—pairs of primary potential competitors than among those of secondary potential competitors. Our results suggested that °47% of the primary potential competitors among native/exotic species—pairs may experience at least small depressions in local population density due to competition. Although the negative correlations were for the most part small (average negative r = 0.06), one species could eventually replace another as spatial displacement accumulated through time. The Japanese White—eye appeared to have a principal role in native/exotic interactions, with 62% of the partial correlations between it and native primary potential competitor species being negative. Noteworthy implications were that (1) it was important to account for the habitat responses of individual species when studying the role of interspecific competition in modifying small—scale geographic distribution; (2) competition was frequently sporadic in its geographic occurrence and in the species affected, thus supporting Wiens' (1977) theory of competition; and (3) as a consequence, the role of interspecific competition in modifying distribution may be difficult to detect statistically with small data sets.

Hawaii↗
USGS1979

Population differentiation along a flood frequency gradient: Physiological adaptations to flooding in Nyssa sylvatica

Throughout the southeastern United States the hardwood Nyssa sylvatica (sensu lato) is distributed along a soil moisture gradient from upland sites, which are never flooded, to floodplains, which are periodically flooded and drained to permanently flooded swamps. Population differentiation with respect to flood tolerance and related physiological attributes was investigated using 1—year—old seedlings grown in a greenhouse from seed collected along this gradient. Upland plants were very intolerant of flooded soils. Their root systems deteriorated, root respiration rates dropped and, after a year under such conditions, survival was poor and those that did remain were greatly stunted and had accumulated large concentrations of many nutrient elements. In contrast swamp plants were quite tolerant of flooded soils. Upon flooding, parts of the orginal root system were lost but new roots were initiated which had an increased capacity for alcoholic fermentation. Many of these new roots were more succulent, larger in diameter, and less branched than drained roots. Such succulent roots however were only a temporary response to short—term flooding; plants flooded for a year did not have such roots, rather the root system superficially resembled drained roots. Concomitant with this return to drained—like roots was an increase in internal oxygen transport to the roots and a drop in alcoholic fermentation. Floodplain plants under drained conditions allocated less biomass to roots than to shoots and had high respiration rates, traits similar to upland plants. Under flooded conditions they initiated new roots with medium respiration rates, allocated less biomass to roots than to shoots, significantly increased oxygen transport to the roots and had high survival, traits similar to swamp plants. Thus, the floodplain population produced a distinctly flood—tolerant phenotype; but not nearly as tolerant of flooded conditions as the swamp phenotype. Floodplain plants differed from swamp plants in transporting less oxygen to the roots under drained conditions, initiating fewer succulent—type roots and not accelerating alcoholic fermentation upon flooding and after a year under flooded conditions having less total biomass, less oxygen transport to the roots and a greater accumulation of Fe and Mn in the roots. The floodplain plants apparently have been selected to be similar to upland plants under drained conditions and swamp plants under flooding and one consequence of this is that their tolerance of flooded conditions is intermediate. It is argued that one of the more important trade—offs in adapting to flooded conditions is that high internal oxygen transport carries with it a ‘cost’ in terms of excessive water loss under water stress conditions.

Ecological Monographs↗
USGS1950

Populations and home range relationships of the box turtle, Terrapene c. carolina (Linnaeus)

SUMMARY: A population study of the box turtle (Terrapene c. carolina Linnaeus) was made during the years 1944 to 1947 at the Patuxent Research Refuge, Maryland. A thirty acre area in well drained bottomland forest on the flood plain of the Patuxent River was selected for intensive study. Similarly forested land extended in all directions from the study plot. Markers were established at eighty-three foot intervals over the study plot for reference in recording locality data. Individuals were marked by filing notches in the marginal scutes according to a code system. There were 2109 collections of study area turtles. Records of collecting sites and turtle behavior showed that in the bottomlands habitat cover is utilized extensively during the day as well as at night. Turtles not actively moving about are almost always found in or around brush piles, heaps of debris, and tangles of vines and briars. Gully banks and woods openings are used for sunning. Turtles are occasionally found in the mud or water of the gullies. The commonest type of night retreat is a cavity constructed by the turtle in leaves, debris, or earth. These cavities, termed 'forms,' may be used only once, but are sometimes used repeatedly, often at intervals of several days or more. Different turtles sometimes use the same form on successive nights. Weather conditions most favorable to turtle activity are high humidity, warm sunny days, and frequent rains. The most unfavorable influences are low temperatures and drought. On most summer days there are some active turtles but individual turtles are not active every day. Periods of activity are alternated with periods of quiet even in favorable weather. This behavior is most pronounced in early spring and late fall when inactive days are often more numerous than active ones. Adult turtles occupy specific home ranges which they maintain from year to year. The turtles living in the study plot retained their ranges even through a flood that completely covered the area. Maximum home range diameters were determined by measurements of the mapped ranges of individual turtles. The average range of adult males was 330 feet, adult females 370 feet. The difference between male and female ranges was not statistically significant. There was no evidence of defense of territory. Ranges of turtles of all ages and both sexes overlapped grossly. Turtles were frequently found near each other and no antagonistic behavior was observed. A trail-laying device was developed in order to follow individual travel routes. The trailer consists of a light weight housing fastened to the turtle's back. It contains a spool of white thread that unwinds as the turtle moves, thus marking its exact route. Turtles selected for this more detailed study were followed with trailers for a total of 456 turtle days. Maps illustrating their travels are shown. Normal movements within the home range are characterized by, (1) turns, doublings, detours, and criss-crossing paths completely covering the area, (2) interspersion of fairly direct traverses of the home range, (3) frequently repeated travels over certain paths or routes. Trailer records and mapped collection records both show that the maximum limits of the home range are ordinarily reached within a few days or weeks. This general procedure is varied by some turtles to include intensive coverage of only one portion of the range at a time. Some turtles have two home ranges and travel between them at infrequent intervals. One turtle showing this behavior was followed with a trailer for 161 days during 1946 and 1947. Trips outside the home range are made by some turtles. These include egg laying trips by females as well as trips of unexplained nature made by both males and females. Turtles from other areas occasionally occur as transients in the study plot. The size of the population was estimated on the basis of collections during on

Ecological Monographs↗
USGS1995

Sea otters and kelp forests in Alaska: Generality and variation in a community ecological paradigm

Multiscale patterns of spatial and temporal variation in density and population structure were used to evaluate the generality of a three—trophic—level cascade among sea otters (Enhydra lutris), invertebrate herbivores, and macroalgae in Alaska. The paradigm holds that where sea otters occur herbivores are rare and plants are abundant, whereas when sea otters are absent herbivores are relatively common and plants are rare. Spatial patterns were based on 20 randomly placed quadrats at 153 randomly selected sites distributed among five locations with and four locations without sea otters. Both sea urchin and kelp abundance differed significantly among locations with vs. without sea otters in the Aleutian Islands and southeast Alaska. There was little (Aleutian Islands) or no (southeast Alaska) overlap between sites with and without sea otters, in plots of kelp density against urchin biomass. Despite intersite variation in the abundance of kelps and herbivores, these analyses demonstrate that sea otter predation has a predictable and broadly generalizable influence on the structure of Alaskan kelp forests. The percent cover of algal turf and suspension feeder assemblages also differed significantly (although less dramatically) between locations with and without sea otters. Temporal variation in community structure was assessed over periods of from 3 to 15 yr at sites in the Aleutian Islands and southeast Alaska where sea otters were 1) continuously present, 2) continuously absent, or 3) becoming reestablished because of natural range expansion. Kelp and sea urchin abundance remained largely unchanged at most sites where sea otters were continuously present or absent, the one exception being at Torch Bay (southeast Alaska), where kelp abundance varied significantly through time and urchin abundance varied significantly among sites because of episodic and patchy disturbances. In contrast, kelp and sea urchin abundances changed significantly, and in the expected directions, at sites that were being recolonized by sea otters. Sea urchin biomass declined by 50% in the Aleutian Islands and by nearly 100% in southeast Alaska following the spread of sea otters into previously unoccupied habitats. In response to these different rates and magnitudes of urchin reduction by sea otter predation, increases in kelp abundance were abrupt and highly significant in southeast Alaska but much smaller and slower over similar time periods in the Aleutian Islands. The different kelp colonization rates between southeast Alaska and the Aleutian Islands appear to be caused by large—scale differences in echinoid recruitment coupled with size—selective predation by sea otters for larger urchins. The length of urchin jaws (correlated with test diameter, r 2 = 0.968) in sea otter scats indicates that sea urchins <15—20 mm test diameter are rarely eaten by foraging sea otters. Sea urchin populations in the Aleutian Islands included high densities of small individuals (<20 mm test diameter) at all sites and during all years sampled, whereas in southeast Alaska similarly sized urchins were absent from most populations during most years. Small (<30—35 mm test diameter) tetracycline—marked urchins in the Aleutian Islands grew at a maximum rate of °10 mm/yr; thus the population must have significant recruitment annually, or at least every several years. In contrast, echinoid recruitment in southeast Alaska was more episodic, with many years to perhaps decades separating significant events. Our findings help explain regional differences in recovery rates of kelp forests following recolonization by sea otters.

Alaska↗
USGS1981

Population dynamics and bioenergetics of a fossorial herbivore, Thomomys talpoides (Rodentia: Geomyidae), in a spruce-fir sere

Studies of the bioenergetics of the northern pocket gopher, Thomomys talpoides , are coupled with data on demography, activity budgets, and microclimates to model the energy requirements of individuals and populations in the Wasatch Mountains of Utah during 1976-1979. Metabolic rates during rest increased linearly with decreasing ambient temperature, but burrowing metabolic rates (16.3 mL O 2 • h -1 • g -9.75 ) were independent of both temperature and physical properties of the soil. Radio-telemetry studies indicated that free-ranging gophers are active =50% of each day. Conservative estimates of true energy consumption were calculated using estimates of habitat-specific minimum daily burrowing requirements. Rates of burrowing measured in the laboratory were either ∞ 0.0 or ∞ 2.0 cm/min. The low burrowing rate was observed when the soil was frozen or saturated with water, as would occur in the field in early winter and in spring, respectively. Gophers burrowed through soil at the study site at an average rate of ∞ 1.5 cm/min. Belowground food energy densities at gopher foraging depth declined from 24.6 to 3.2 J/cm 3 along a successional gradient (subalpine forb meadow to Engelmann spruce dominated forest). We conclude that individual gophers are food limited within the climax spruce seral stage. Further, daily energy costs associated with reproduction in females may exceed the belowground energy supply available in intermediate seral stages (aspen and subalpine fir). Reduction of burrowing rates for any reason will affect gophers in the late seral stages proportionately more than those resident in the meadow. The peak gopher densities recorded (from 62 individuals/ha in the meadow to 2 individuals/ha in spruce forest) support these inferences. Detailed demographic information was obtained only in the meadow seral stage. Adult survivorship was lower in winter than in summer and varied greatly between years (0.18-0.70 yr -1 ). Juvenile survivorship from weaning through the first year was comparable to adult annual rates. The fertility rate was 3.75 young • female -1 • yr -1 . The energy supply and demand analyses indicate that the growth of Thomomys talpoides populations in the early seral stages is seldom directly limited by the amount of food present. From our demographic, environmental, and autecological studies we conclude that stochastic events associated with weather affect energy acquisition (burrowing) rates, and thus survivorship. In montane environments, such events may prevent populations from attaining sizes at which territorial behavior would hypothetically limit further increases. The energy flow through the meadow population at moderate to high )1976-1977) densities (at least 1100 MJ • ha -1 • yr -1 ) indicates that pocket gophers are proficient energy movers relative to non-fossorial small mammals. Subalpine T. talpoides populations appear commonly to attain such densities. More than 30% of the annual primary productivity allocated to belowground parts of meadow forbs may be consumed by gophers.

Ecological Monographs↗
USGS1996

Holocene paleoenvironments of Northeast Iowa

This paper presents the biotic, sedimentary, geomorphic, and climatic history of the upper part of the Roberts Creek Basin, northeastern Iowa for the late—glacial and Holocene, and compares these records with a C—O isotopic sequence from Coldwater Cave, 60 km northwest of Roberts Creek. The biotic record (pollen, vascular plant and bryophyte macrofossils, and insects) is preserved in floodplain alluvium that underlies three constructional surfaces separated by low scarps. Each surface is underlain by a lithologically and temporally distinct alluvial fill. The highest surface is underlain by the Gunder Member of the Deforest Formation, dating from 11 000 to 4000 yr BP; beneath the intermediate level is the Roberts Creek Member, dating from 4000 to 400 yr BP; and the lowest level is underlain by the Camp Creek Member, deposited during the last 380 yr. Pollen and plant macrofossils in the alluvial fill show that a typical late—glacial spruce forest was replaced by Quercus and Ulmus in the early Holocene. This early—to—middle Holocene forest became dominated by mesic elements such as Acer saccharum, Tilia americana, Ostrya virginiana, and Carpinus caroliniana as late as 5500 yr BP; in contrast, the closest sites to the west and north were at their warmest and driest and were covered by prairie vegetation between 6500 and 5500 yr BP. After 5500 yr BP, the forest in the Roberts Creek area was replaced by prairie, as indicated by a rich assemblage of plant macrofossils, although only Ambrosia and Poaceae became abundant in the pollen record. The return of Quercus ≈ 3000 BP (while nonarboreal pollen percentages remained relatively high) indicates that oak savanna prevailed with little change until settlement time. The bryophyte assemblages strongly support the vascular plant record. Rich fen species characteristic of boreal habitats occur only in the late—glacial. They are replaced by a number of deciduous—forest elements when early—to—middle Holocene forests were present, but mosses of forest habitats completely disappear when prairie became dominant. A few deciduous—forest taxa return during the late—Holocene, when oak savanna prevailed. The C—O isotopic record from stalagmite s in Coldwater Cave indicates a relatively stable environment from ≈ 8000 to 5100 yr BP, when the δ 13 C values indicate a change in vegetation dominated by C 3 (predominantly forest) to C 4 (predominantly prairie) plants. About 4900 yr BP, the rise in 18 O values indicates a temperature increase of ≈ 1.5 ° C. The fact that the vegetational change suggested by the δ 13 C values preceded the temperature increase suggests that fire may have been an important factor in converting forest to prairie. Abundant charred seeds and other plant material at Roberts Creek 4830 yr BP support this hypothesis. The 18 O values remain constant from ≈ 5100 to ≈ 3000 yr BP, but the δ 13 C values gradually rise, indicating that soil formed under forest takes at least 2000 yr for its carbon to reach equilibrium after replacement by prairie vegetation. The return of oak to form savanna is reflected in the gradual decline of δ 13 C values in the last 3000 yr BP; O isotopic values drop sharply by ≈ 1 ° C ≈ 2800 yr BP and then were relatively stable. In contrast to the vegetational and isotopic records, the insect assemblages suggest little change in the local environments throughout most of the Holocene. All of the beetle taxa presently occur in eastern Iowa. The relative stability through the Holocene indicates that both open grassland and riparian woodland elements were present throughout. Settlement, land clearing, and land cultivation by EuroAmericans in the region caused rapid erosion of the upland landscape, the deposition of 1—2 m of sediment across the floodplain, a replacement of the native vegetation with ruderal species, a decimation of the native insect fauna, and a degradation of water quality in the stream. These changes in the landscape, vegetation, and insect faunas are as striking as those associated with glacial—interglacial transitions. The timing and direction of changes in the vegetation at Roberts Creek generally correlate well with the carbon and oxygen isotopic record in speleothems at nearby Coldwater Cave and indicate that climate was the main forcing function. However, the contrast between the vegetational change and the stability of the beetle population suggests that climatic changes were subtle. We hypothesize that the factors involved in the Holocene changes were seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation that may not have resulted in much mean annual change. Such changes may have affected the vegetation more than the insect fauna.

Iowa↗
USGS1890

Contributions to North American Ethnology, Volume II, Part II: The Klamath Indians of southwestern Oregon: dictionary of the Klamath language

The present Dictionary, divided in two parts, contains the lexical portion of an Oregonian language never before reduced to writing. In view of the numerous obstacles and difficulties encountered in the preparation of such a work, a few hints upon its origin and tendencies will be of service in directing the studies of those who wish to acquire a more intimate knowledge of this energetic and well developed western language.

Oregon↗
USGS1877

Geology of the Henry Mountains

If these pages fail to give a correct account of the structure of the Henry Mountains the fault is mine and I have no excuse. In all the earlier exploration of the Rocky Mountain Region, as well as in much of the more recent survey, the geologist has merely accompanied the geographer and has had no voice in the determination of either the route or the rate of travel. When the structure of a mountain was in doubt he was rarely able to visit the points which should resolve the doubt, but was compelled to turn regretfully away. Not so in the survey of the Henry Mountains. Geological exploration had shown that they were well disposed for examination, and that they promised to give the key to a type of structure which was at best obscurely known; and I was sent by Professor Powell to make a study of them, without restriction as to my order or method. I was limited only in time, the snow stopping my work two months after it was begun. Two months would be far too short a period in which to survey a thousand square miles in Pennsylvania or Illinois, but among the Colorado Plateaus it proved sufficient. A few comprehensive views from mountain tops gave the general distribution of the formations, and the remainder of the time was spent in the examination of the localities which best displayed the peculiar features of the structure. So thorough was the display and so satisfactory the examination, that in preparing my report I have felt less than ever before the desire to revisit the field and prove my conclusions by more extended observation.

Utah↗