Geology topics

W.B. Durham

Publications and source records attributed to W.B. Durham.

29 records · Page 2Linked to original sources

USGS2001

Anomalous preservation of pure methane hydrate at 1 atm

Direct measurement of decomposition rates of pure, polycrystalline methane hydrate reveals a thermal regime where methane hydrate metastably `preserves' in bulk by as much as 75 K above its nominal equilibrium temperature (193 K at 1 atm). Rapid release of the sample pore pressure at isothermal conditions between 242 and 271 K preserves up to 93% of the hydrate for at least 24 h, reflecting the greatly suppressed rates of dissociation that characterize this regime. Subsequent warming through the H2O ice point then induces rapid and complete dissociation, allowing controlled recovery of the total expected gas yield. This behavior is in marked contrast to that exhibited by methane hydrate at both colder (193-240 K) and warmer (272-290 K) test conditions, where dissociation rates increase monotonically with increasing temperature. Anomalous preservation has potential application for successful retrieval of natural gas hydrate or hydrate-bearing sediments from remote settings, as well as for temporary low-pressure transport and storage of natural gas.

Journal of Physical Chemistry B↗

USGS2000

The state and future of Mars polar science and exploration

As the planet's principal cold traps, the martian polar regions have accumulated extensive mantles of ice and dust that cover individual areas of ∼10 6 km 2 and total as much as 3–4 km thick. From the scarcity of superposed craters on their surface, these layered deposits are thought to be comparatively young—preserving a record of the seasonal and climatic cycling of atmospheric CO 2 , H 2 O, and dust over the past ∼10 5 –10 8 years. For this reason, the martian polar deposits may serve as a Rosetta Stone for understanding the geologic and climatic history of the planet—documenting variations in insolation (due to quasiperiodic oscillations in the planet's obliquity and orbital elements), volatile mass balance, atmospheric composition, dust storm activity, volcanic eruptions, large impacts, catastrophic floods, solar luminosity, supernovae, and perhaps even a record of microbial life. Beyond their scientific value, the polar regions may soon prove important for another reason—providing a valuable and accessible reservoir of water to support the long-term human exploration of Mars. In this paper we assess the current state of Mars polar research, identify the key questions that motivate the exploration of the polar regions, discuss the extent to which current missions will address these questions, and speculate about what additional capabilities and investigations may be required to address the issues that remain outstanding.

Icarus↗

USGS2000

Methane hydrate dissociation rates at 0.1 MPa and temperatures above 272 K

We performed rapid depressurization experiments on methane hydrate under isothermal conditions above 272 K to determine the amount and rate of methane evolution. Sample temperatures rapidly drop below 273 K and stabilize near 272.5 K during dissociation. This thermal anomaly and the persistence of methane hydrate are consistent with the reported recovery of partially dissociated methane hydrate from ocean drilling cores.

Conference Paper↗

USGS1998

Optical-cell evidence for superheated ice under gas-hydrate-forming conditions

We previously reported indirect but compelling evidence that fine-grained H 2 O ice under elevated CH 4 gas pressure can persist to temperatures well above its ordinary melting point while slowly reacting to form methane clathrate hydrate. This phenomenon has now been visually verified by duplicating these experiments in an optical cell while observing the very slow hydrate-forming process as the reactants were warmed from 250 to 290 K at methane pressures of 23 to 30 MPa. Limited hydrate growth occurred rapidly after initial exposure of the methane gas to the ice grains at temperatures well within the ice subsolidus region. No evidence for continued growth of the hydrate phase was observed until samples were warmed above the equilibrium H 2 O melting curve. With continued heating, no bulk melting of the ice grains or free liquid water was detected anywhere within the optical cell until hydrate dissociation conditions were reached (292 K at 30 MPa), even though full conversion of the ice grains to hydrate requires 6−8 h at temperatures approaching 290 K. In a separate experimental sequence, unreacted portions of H 2 O ice grains that had persisted to temperatures above their ordinary melting point were successfully induced to melt, without dissociating the coexisting hydrate in the sample tube, by reducing the pressure overstep of the equilibrium phase boundary and thereby reducing the rate of hydrate growth at the ice−hydrate interface. Results from similar tests using CO 2 as the hydrate-forming species demonstrated that this superheating effect is not unique to the CH 4 −H 2 O system.

Journal of Physical Chemistry B↗

USGS1998

Polycrystalline methane hydrate: Synthesis from superheated ice, and low-temperature mechanical properties

We describe a new and efficient technique to grow aggregates of pure methane hydrate in quantities suitable for physical and material properties testing. Test specimens were grown under static conditions by combining cold, pressurized CH 4 gas with granulated H 2 O ice, and then warming the reactants to promote the reaction CH 4 (g) + 6H 2 O(s→l) → CH 4 ·6H 2 O (methane hydrate). Hydrate formation evidently occurs at the nascent ice/liquid water interface on ice grain surfaces, and complete reaction was achieved by warming the system above the ice melting point and up to 290 K, at 25−30 MPa, for approximately 8 h. The resulting material is pure, cohesive, polycrystalline methane hydrate with controlled grain size and random orientation. Synthesis conditions placed the H 2 O ice well above its melting temperature while reaction progressed, yet samples and run records showed no evidence for bulk melting of the unreacted portions of ice grains. Control experiments using Ne, a non-hydrate-forming gas, showed that under otherwise identical conditions, the pressure reduction and latent heat associated with ice melting are easily detectable in our fabrication apparatus. These results suggest that under hydrate-forming conditions, H 2 O ice can persist metastably to temperatures well above its ordinary melting point while reacting to form hydrate. Direct observations of the hydrate growth process in a small, high-pressure optical cell verified these conclusions and revealed additional details of the hydrate growth process. Methane hydrate samples were then tested in constant-strain-rate deformation experiments at T = 140−200 K, P c = 50−100 MPa, and ε = 10 - 4 −10 - 6 s - 1 . Measurements in both the brittle and ductile fields showed that methane hydrate has measurably different strength than H 2 O ice, and work hardens to an unusually high degree compared to other ices as well as to most metals and ceramics at high homologous temperatures. This work hardening may be related to a changing stoichiometry under pressure during plastic deformation; X-ray analyses showed that methane hydrate undergoes a process of solid-state disproportionation or exsolution during deformation at conditions well within its conventional stability field.

Energy and Fuels↗

USGS1997

Grain-size-induced weakening of H2O ices I and II and associated anisotropic recrystallization

Grain-size-dependent flow mechanisms tend to be favored over dislocation creep at low differential stresses and can potentially influence the rheology of low-stress, low-strain rate environments such as those of planetary interiors. We experimentally investigated the effect of reduced grain size on the solid-state flow of water ice I, a principal component of the asthenospheres of many icy moons of the outer solar system, using techniques new to studies of this deformation regime. We fabricated fully dense ice samples of approximate grain size 2±1 μm by transforming “standard” ice I samples of 250±50 μm grain size to the higher-pressure phase ice II, deforming them in the ice II field, and then rapidly releasing the pressure deep into the ice I stability field. At T ≤200 K, slow growth and rapid nucleation of ice I combine to produce a fine grain size. Constant-strain rate deformation tests conducted on these samples show that deformation rates are less stress sensitive than for standard ice and that the fine-grained material is markedly weaker than standard ice, particularly during the transient approach to steady state deformation. Scanning electron microscope examination of the deformed fine-grained ice samples revealed an unusual microstructure dominated by platelike grains that grew normal to the compression direction, with c axes preferentially oriented parallel to compression. In samples tested at T ≥220 K the elongation of the grains is so pronounced that the samples appear finely banded, with aspect ratios of grains approaching 50:1. The anisotropic growth of these crystallographically oriented neoblasts likely contributes to progressive work hardening observed during the transient stage of deformation. We have also documented remarkably similar microstructural development and weak mechanical behavior in fine-grained ice samples partially transformed and deformed in the ice II field.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗

USGS1997

Creep of water ices at planetary conditions: A compilation

Many constitutive laws for the flow of ice have been published since the advent of the Voyager explorations of the outer solar system. Conflicting data have occasionally come from different laboratories, and refinement of experimental techniques has led to the publication of laws that supersede earlier ones. In addition, there are unpublished data from ongoing research that also amend the constitutive laws. Here we compile the most current laboratory-derived flow laws for water ice phases I, II, III, V, and VI, and ice I mixtures with hard particulates. The rheology of interest is mainly that of steady state, and the conditions reviewed are the pressures and temperatures applicable to the surfaces and interiors of icy moons of the outer solar system. Advances in grain-size-dependent creep in ices I and II as well as in phase transformations and metastability under differential stress are also included in this compilation. At laboratory strain rates the several ice polymorphs are rheologically distinct in terms of their stress, temperature, and pressure dependencies but, with the exception of ice III, have fairly similar strengths. Hard particulates strengthen ice I significantly only at high particulate volume fractions. Ice III has the potential for significantly affecting mantle dynamics because it is much weaker than the other polymorphs and its region of stability, which may extend metastably well into what is nominally the ice II field, is located near likely geotherms of large icy moons.

Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets↗

USGS1997

Synthesis of polycrystalline methane hydrate, and its phase stability and mechanical properties at elevated pressure

Test specimens of methane hydrate were grown under static conditions by combining cold, pressurized CH4 gas with H2O ice grains, then warming the system to promote the reaction CH4 (g) + 6H2O (s???l) ??? CH4??6H2O. Hydrate formation evidently occurs at the nascent ice/liquid water interface, and complete reaction was achieved by warming the system above 271.5 K and up to 289 K, at 25-30 MPa, for approximately 8 hours. The resulting material is pure methane hydrate with controlled grain size and random texture. Fabrication conditions placed the H2O ice well above its melting temperature before reaction completed, yet samples and run records showed no evidence for bulk melting of the ice grains. Control experiments using Ne, a non-hydrate-forming gas, verified that under otherwise identical conditions, the pressure reduction and latent heat associated with ice melting is easily detectable in our fabrication apparatus. These results suggest that under hydrate-forming conditions, H2O ice can persist metastably at temperatures well above its melting point. Methane hydrate samples were then tested in constant-strain-rate deformation experiments at T= 140-200 K, Pc= 50-100 MPa, and ????= 10-4-10-6 s-1. Measurements in both the brittle and ductile fields showed that methane hydrate has measurably different strength than H2O ice, and work hardens to a higher degree compared to other ices as well as to most metals and ceramics at high homologous temperatures. This work hardening may be related to a changing stoichiometry under pressure during plastic deformation; x-ray analyses showed that methane hydrate undergoes a process of solid-state disproportionation or exsolution during deformation at conditions well within its conventional stability field.

ACS Division of Fuel Chemistry, Preprints↗

USGS1996

Rheology of water ices V and VI

We have measured the mechanical strength (σ) of pure water ices V and VI under steady state deformation conditions. Constant displacement rate compressional tests were conducted in a gas apparatus at confining pressures from 400 < P < 800 MPa, temperatures from 209 < T < 270 K, and strain rates 7 × 10 −7 < < 7 × 10 −4 s −1 . Most of the results fit to an empirical flow law of the form = A σ n exp {−( E * + PV *)/ RT }, where the four material constants A , n , E *, and V * are (for in inverse seconds and P and σ in megapascals) 10 23.0 , 6.0, 136 kJ/mol, and 29 cm 3 /mol, respectively, for ice V; and 10 6.7 , 4.5, 66 kJ/mol, and 11 cm 3 /mol, respectively, for ice VI. Ice VI may weaken to a mechanism of higher E * at T > 250 K. Ices V and VI are thus rheologically distinct but by coincidence have approximately the same strength under the conditions chosen for these experiments. To avoid misidentification, these tests are therefore accompanied by careful observations of the occurrences and characteristics of phase changes. One sample each of ice V and VI was quenched at pressure to metastably retain the high-pressure phase and the acquired deformation microstructures; X ray diffraction analysis of these samples confirmed the phase identification. Surface replicas of the deformed and quenched samples suggest that ice V probably deforms largely by dislocation creep, while ice VI deforms by a more complicated process involving substantial grain size reduction through recrystallization.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗

USGS1991

Mantle phase changes and deep-earthquake faulting in subducting lithosphere

Inclined zones of earthquakes are the primary expression of lithosphere subduction. A distinct deep population of subduction-zone earthquakes occurs at depths of 350 to 690 kilometers. At those depths ordinary brittle fracture and frictional sliding, the faulting processes of shallow earthquakes, are not expected. A fresh understanding of these deep earthquakes comes from developments in several areas of experimental and theoretical geophysics, including the discovery and characterization of transformational faulting, a shear instability connected with localized phase transformations under nonhydrostatic stress. These developments support the hypothesis that deep earthquakes represent transformational faulting in a wedge of olivine-rich peridotite that is likely to persist metastably in coldest plate interiors to depths as great as 690 km. Predictions based on this deep structure of mantle phase changes are consistent with the global depth distribution of deep earthquakes, the maximum depths of earthquakes in individual subductions zones, and key source characteristics of deep events.

Science↗

USGS1987

Inelastic properties of ice Ih at low temperatures and high pressures

The aim of our research programme is to explore the rheological behavior of H 2 O ices under conditions appropriate to the interiors of the icy satellites of the outer planets in order to give insight into their deformation. To this end, we have performed over 100 constant-strain-rate compression tests at pressures to 500 MPa and temperatures as low as 77 K. At P > 30 MPa, ice I h fails by a shear instability producing faults in the maximum shear stress orientation and failure strength typically is independent of pressure. This unusual faulting behavior is thought to be connected with phase transformations localized in the shear zones. The steady-state strength follows rheological laws of the thermally-activated power-law type, with different flow law parameters depending on the range of test temperatures. The flow laws will be discussed with reference to the operating deformation mechanisms as deduced from optical-scale microstructures and comparison with other work.

Journal de Physique Colloques↗