Public, bottled, and private drinking water: Shared contaminant-mixture exposures and effects challenge
BACKGROUND: Humans are primary drivers of environmental contaminant exposures worldwide, including in drinking-water (DW). In the United States (US), point-of-use DW (POU DW) is supplied via private tapwater (TW, predominantly private wells), public-supply TW, and bottled water (BW). Differences in management, monitoring, and messaging and lack of directly intercomparable exposure data influence the actual and perceived quality and safety of different DW supplies and directly impact consumer decision making. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this paper is to provide a meta-analysis (quantitative synthesis) of POU DW contaminant mixture exposures and corresponding potential human health effects of private-TW, public-TW, and BW by aggregating exposure results and harmonizing apical health benchmark weighted and bioactivity weighted effects predictions across previous studies by this research group. DISCUSSION: Simultaneous exposures to multiple inorganic and organic contaminants of known or suspected human-health concern are common across all three DW supplies, with substantial variability observed in each and no systematic difference in predicted cumulative risk between supply chains. Differences in contaminant or contaminant class exposures (e.g., trace metals, disinfection byproducts), with important implications for DW quality improvements, were observed and attributed to corresponding differences in regulation and compliance monitoring. CONCLUSION: The results indicate that human-health risks from contaminant exposures are common to and comparable in all three DW supplies, including BW. Importantly, this study’s target analytical coverage, which exceeds that currently feasible for water purveyors or homeowners, nevertheless is a substantial underestimation of the full breadth of contaminant mixtures in the environment and potentially present in DW. Thus, the results emphasize the need for improved understanding of the adverse human-health implications of long-term exposures to low level inorganic /organic contaminant mixtures across all three distribution pipelines and do not support commercial messaging of BW as a systematically safer alternative to public-TW. Regardless of the supply, increased engagement in source-water protection and drinking-water treatment, including consumer point of use treatment, is necessary to reduce risks associated with long-term DW contaminant exposures, especially in vulnerable populations, and to reduce environmental waste and plastics contamination.