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Geology topics

Ken Krauss

Publications and source records attributed to Ken Krauss.

At least 55 records · Page 3Linked to original sources
USGS2022

Processes and mechanisms of coastal woody-plant mortality

Observations of woody plant mortality in coastal ecosystems are globally widespread, but the overarching processes and underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. This knowledge deficiency, combined with rapidly changing water levels, storm surges, atmospheric CO 2 , and vapor pressure deficit, creates large predictive uncertainty regarding how coastal ecosystems will respond to global change. Here we synthesize the literature on the mechanisms that underlie coastal woody-plant mortality, with the goal of producing a testable hypothesis framework. The key emergent mechanisms underlying mortality include hypoxic, osmotic, and ionic-driven reductions in whole-plant hydraulic conductance and photosynthesis that ultimately drive the coupled processes of hydraulic failure and carbon starvation. The relative importance of these processes in driving mortality, their order of progression, and their degree of coupling depends on the characteristics of the anomalous water exposure, on topographic effects, and on taxa-specific variation in traits and trait acclimation. Greater inundation exposure could accelerate mortality globally; however, the interaction of changing inundation exposure with elevated CO 2 , drought, and rising vapor pressure deficit could influence mortality likelihood. Models of coastal forests that incorporate the frequency and duration of inundation, the role of climatic drivers, and the processes of hydraulic failure and carbon starvation can yield improved estimates of inundation-induced woody-plant mortality.

Global Change Biology↗
USGS2022

A comprehensive assessment of mangrove species and carbon stock on Pohnpei, Micronesia

Mangrove forests are the most important ecosystems on Pohnpei Island, Federated States of Micronesia, as the island communities of the central Pacific rely on the forests for many essential services including protection from sea-level rise that is occurring at a greater pace than the global average. As part of a multi-component assessment to evaluate vulnerabilities of mangrove forests on Pohnpei, mangrove forests were mapped at two points in time: 1983 and 2018. In 2018, the island had 6,426 ha of mangrove forest. Change analysis indicated a slight (0.76%) increase of mangrove area between 1983 and 2018, contrasting with global mangrove area declines. Forest structure and aboveground carbon (AGC) stocks were inventoried using a systematic sampling of field survey plots and extrapolated to the island using k-nearest neighbor and random forest species models. A gridded or wall to wall approach is suggested when possible for defining carbon stocks of a large area due to high variability seen in our data. The k-nearest neighbor model performed better than random forest models to map species dominance in these forests. Mean AGC was 167 ± 11 MgC ha -1 , which is greater than the global average of mangroves (115 ± 7 MgC ha -1 ) but within their global range (37–255 MgC ha -1 ) Kauffman et al. (2020). In 2018, Pohnpei mangroves contained over 1.07 million MgC in AGC pools. By assigning the mean AGC stock per species per area to the map, carbon stock distributions were visualized spatially, allowing future conservation efforts to be directed to carbon dense stands.

Pohnpei Island↗
USGS2022

Presence of the herbaceous marsh species Schoenoplectus americanus enhances surface elevation gain in transitional coastal wetland communities exposed to elevated CO2 and sediment deposition events

Coastal wetlands are dynamic ecosystems that exist along a landscape continuum that can range from freshwater forested wetlands to tidal marsh to mudflat communities. Climate-driven stressors, such as sea-level rise, can cause shifts among these communities, resulting in changes to ecological functions and services. While a growing body of research has characterized the landscape-scale impacts of individual climate-driven stressors, little is known about how multiple stressors and their potential interactions will affect ecological functioning of these ecosystems. How will coastal wetlands respond to discrete climate disturbances, such as hurricane sediment deposition events, under future conditions of elevated atmospheric CO 2 ? Will these responses vary among the different wetland communities? We conducted experimental greenhouse manipulations to simulate sediment deposition from a land-falling hurricane under future elevated atmospheric CO 2 concentrations (720 ppm CO 2 ). We measured responses of net primary production, decomposition, and elevation change in mesocosms representing four communities along a coastal wetland landscape gradient: freshwater forested wetland, forest/marsh mix, marsh, and mudflat. When Schoenoplectus americanus was present, above- and belowground biomass production was highest, decomposition rates were lowest, and wetland elevation gain was greatest, regardless of CO 2 and sediment deposition treatments. Sediment addition initially increased elevation capital in all communities, but post-deposition rates of elevation gain were lower than in mesocosms without added sediment. Together these results indicate that encroachment of oligohaline marshes into freshwater forested wetlands can enhance belowground biomass accumulation and resilience to sea-level rise, and these plant-mediated ecosystem services will be augmented by periodic sediment pulses from storms and restoration efforts.

Plants↗
USGS2022

Floodplain ecology: A novel wetland community of the Amazon

An expedition to the upper estuarine reaches of the Amazon River reveals intriguing overlap of tropical mangrove wetlands with riverine floodplain forests. This newly discovered type of forested wetland assemblage may provide a uniquely process-rich carbon hotspot.

Amazon River↗
USGS2022

Constraints on the adjustment of tidal marshes to accelerating sea level rise

Much uncertainty exists about the vulnerability of valuable tidal marsh ecosystems to relative sea level rise. Previous assessments of resilience to sea level rise, to which marshes can adjust by sediment accretion and elevation gain, revealed contrasting results, depending on contemporary or Holocene geological data. By analyzing globally distributed contemporary data, we found that marsh sediment accretion increases in parity with sea level rise, seemingly confirming previously claimed marsh resilience. However, subsidence of the substrate shows a nonlinear increase with accretion. As a result, marsh elevation gain is constrained in relation to sea level rise, and deficits emerge that are consistent with Holocene observations of tidal marsh vulnerability.

Science↗
USGS2021

Summary of wetland carbon and environmental management: Path forward

Wetlands around the world are under pressure from both anthropogenic sources such as land-use change and accelerating climate change (Erwin, 2009; Moomaw et al., 2018). Storage of carbon resources is a key ecosystem service of wetlands and offer natural solutions to climate change mitigation; policies and management actions could determine the fate of these resources and their contributions to climate mitigation and society needs. Inland and tidal wetlands store and sequester more carbon in soil and biomass than any other ecosystems on a per unit area basis, but also are responsible for the majority of ecosystem methane emissions (NASEM, 2019; Knox et al., 2019). Most of wetland carbon is stored deep in soils, thus providing long-term preservation of the resource (Nahlik and Fennessy, 2016). In addition to productive carbon sequestration in situ, wetlands also play a major role in lateral fluxes of carbon and other greenhouse gases along the continuum of different landscape features, including lakes, rivers, and coastal waters (Aufdenkampe et al., 2011; Ciais et al., 2008; Troxler et al., 2013). The ability of wetlands to regulate key processes of the carbon cycle is related to characteristics of the ecosystem, particularly hydrologic functions (Zhou et al., 2018). Disturbances to wetland hydrology, from land use change to natural disturbances such as wildfire, could lead to major disruptions to the wetland carbon cycle (Moomaw et al., 2018). This book is organized to first introduce fundamentals of wetland biogeochemistry (Neubauer and Megonigal, 2020) and carbon stock distribution and management in broad geographic and temporal domains, then provide a more in-depth treatment of case studies of different wetland types across the world (Fig. 1). A range of wetland management actions are described in the context of carbon sequestration and greenhouse gas emissions, including hydrology, sediment, avoided loss, restoration, wildfire, and co-habitation of multiple uses. Different wetland types or land uses considered in this book include freshwater herbaceous wetlands, peatlands of temperate as well as tropical climate, coastal tidal marshes and mangroves, drained croplands, and rice paddies.

Book chapter↗
USGS2021

Potential for carbon and nitrogen sequestration by restoring tidal connectivity and enhancing soil surface elevations in denuded and degraded south Florida mangrove ecosystems

Mangroves are tidally dependent wetlands that are influenced often by alterations in hydrology associated with coastal developments that impact their distribution, health, and function. Alteration in frequency, depth, duration, and seasonality of tidal inundation can lead to changes in forest condition, although these stress-adapted ecosystems may persist for many years before succumbing to mortality. However, arresting this decline through hydrological restoration can significantly improve ecosystem condition and the provision of ecosystem services. Much of the mangrove resource on Marco Island, Florida, USA, is unhealthy if not already dead or dying due to soil structural shifts, permanent flooding, and peat compression resulting from road construction, tidal restriction, and delays in restoration actions. In order to determine the impact of restricted hydrology on these mangrove forests, we examined soil surface elevation change and soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) content along a degradation gradient and within a small-scale, community-driven restoration area. Using a space-for-time substitution approach, we found that the restoration of regular tidal inundation to Marco Island mangroves has the potential to increase C sequestration in surface soils alone from 0 to 360 g C/m 2 /yr (3.60 Mg C/ha/yr) and increase N sequestration from 0 to 24 g N/m2/yr (0.24 Mg N/ha/yr). Additional sequestration benefits would be realized with aboveground forest recovery. Successful mangrove restoration trials and small community-based projects such as those on Marco Island could serve as a model for larger efforts and empower stakeholders and policy makers to restore other wetlands and better manage coastal carbon.

Florida↗
USGS2021

Preface to book: Wetland carbon and environmental management

The idea for this book, including its organization and contents, has its origin in the latest environmental and climate policy requirements in the United States, as well as science advances. In 2007, the U.S. Congress passed the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA), from which Section 712 required U.S. Federal agencies to provide a better understanding of carbon and greenhouse gas fluxes across the United States. As a result, largescale and coordinated efforts were launched to assess carbon storage, carbon fluxes, and greenhouse gas fluxes including CO2, CH4, and N2O from all major terrestrial and freshwater aquatic ecosystems, including forest, grassland/shrub, agricultural lands, wetlands, and rivers, streams, lakes, and impoundments. The EISA assessment produced major results (Selmants et al., 2017; Zhu, 2011; Zhu & McGuire, 2016; Zhu & Reed, 2012, 2014), but recognized that wetlands remained a significant source of uncertainty, especially for those wetlands that were being actively managed. The more recent Second State of the Carbon Cycle Report by the U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP), which devoted two separate chapters to inland and coastal wetlands, respectively, noted that large knowledge gaps still remain, ranging from inadequate analysis of restored and managed wetlands, and consequences of management decisions, to future wetland responses to climate change (USGCRP, 2018). In recent literature, wetland management is suggested as a potential natural solution to mitigate climate change (Fargione et al., 2018, Kroeger et al., 2017) and help offset direct losses of wetlands from sea level rise, subsidence, and coastal erosion (Wang et al., 2017). The recognition that a synthesis of wetland carbon management was urgently needed was the genesis of Wetland Carbon and Environmental Management; discerning the relationships between wetland management and carbon flux (loss or gain) is an international goal.

Geophysical Monograph Series↗
USGS2021

Watershed and estuarine controls both influence plant community and tree growth changes in tidal freshwater forested wetlands along two U.S. mid-Atlantic rivers

The tidal freshwater zone near the estuarine head-of-tide is potentially sensitive to both sea-level rise and associated salinity increases as well as changing watershed inputs of freshwater and nutrients. We evaluated the vegetation response of tidal freshwater forested wetlands (TFFW) to changes in nontidal river versus estuarine controls along the longitudinal gradient of the Mattaponi and Pamunkey rivers in the Mid-Atlantic USA. The gradient included nontidal freshwater floodplain (NT) and upper tidal (UT), lower tidal (LT), and stressed tidal forest transitioning to marsh (ST) TFFW habitats on both rivers. Plot-based vegetation sampling and dendrochronology were employed to examine: (1) downriver shifts in plant community composition and the structure of canopy trees, understory trees/saplings/shrubs and herbs, tree basal-area increment (BAI) and (2) interannual variability in BAI from 2015 dating back as far as 1969 in relation to long-term river and estuary monitoring data. With greater tidal influence downstream, tree species dominance shifted, live basal area generally decreased, long-term mean BAI of individual trees decreased, woody stem mortality increased, and live herbaceous vegetative cover and richness increased. Acer rubrum , Fagus grandifolia , Ilex opaca , and Fraxinus pennsylvanica dominated NT and UT sites, with F. pennsylvanica and Nyssa sylvatica increasingly dominating at more downstream tidal sites. Annual tree BAI growth was positively affected by nontidal river flow at NT and UT sites which were closer to the head-of-tide, positively influenced by small salinity increases at LT and ST sites further downstream, and positively influenced by estuarine water level throughout the gradient; nutrient influence was site specific with both positive and negative influences. The counterintuitive finding of salinity increasing tree growth at sites with low BAI is likely due to either competitive growth release from neighboring tree death or enhanced soil nutrient availability that may temporarily mitigate the negative effects of low-level salinization and sea-level increases on living TFFW canopy trees, even as overall plant community conversion to tidal marsh progresses.

Virginia↗
USGS2021

FLUXNET-CH4: A global, multi-ecosystem database and analysis of methane seasonality from freshwater wetlands

Methane (CH 4 ) emissions from natural landscapes constitute roughly half of global CH 4 contributions to the atmosphere, yet large uncertainties remain in the absolute magnitude and the seasonality of emission quantities and drivers. Eddy covariance (EC) measurements of CH 4 flux are ideal for constraining ecosystem-scale CH 4 emissions due to quasi-continuous and high-temporal-resolution CH 4 flux measurements, coincident carbon dioxide, water, and energy flux measurements, lack of ecosystem disturbance, and increased availability of datasets over the last decade. Here, we (1) describe the newly published dataset, FLUXNET-CH 4 Version 1.0, the first open-source global dataset of CH 4 EC measurements (available at https://fluxnet.org/data/fluxnet-ch4-community-product/ , last access: 7 April 2021). FLUXNET-CH 4 includes half-hourly and daily gap-filled and non-gap-filled aggregated CH 4 fluxes and meteorological data from 79 sites globally: 42 freshwater wetlands, 6 brackish and saline wetlands, 7 formerly drained ecosystems, 7 rice paddy sites, 2 lakes, and 15 uplands. Then, we (2) evaluate FLUXNET-CH 4 representativeness for freshwater wetland coverage globally because the majority of sites in FLUXNET-CH 4 Version 1.0 are freshwater wetlands which are a substantial source of total atmospheric CH 4 emissions; and (3) we provide the first global estimates of the seasonal variability and seasonality predictors of freshwater wetland CH 4 fluxes. Our representativeness analysis suggests that the freshwater wetland sites in the dataset cover global wetland bioclimatic attributes (encompassing energy, moisture, and vegetation-related parameters) in arctic, boreal, and temperate regions but only sparsely cover humid tropical regions. Seasonality metrics of wetland CH 4 emissions vary considerably across latitudinal bands. In freshwater wetlands (except those between 20 ∘ S to 20 ∘ N) the spring onset of elevated CH 4 emissions starts 3 d earlier, and the CH 4 emission season lasts 4 d longer, for each degree Celsius increase in mean annual air temperature. On average, the spring onset of increasing CH 4 emissions lags behind soil warming by 1 month, with very few sites experiencing increased CH 4 emissions prior to the onset of soil warming. In contrast, roughly half of these sites experience the spring onset of rising CH 4 emissions prior to the spring increase in gross primary productivity (GPP). The timing of peak summer CH 4 emissions does not correlate with the timing for either peak summer temperature or peak GPP. Our results provide seasonality parameters for CH 4 modeling and highlight seasonality metrics that cannot be predicted by temperature or GPP (i.e., seasonality of CH 4 peak). FLUXNET-CH 4 is a powerful new resource for diagnosing and understanding the role of terrestrial ecosystems and climate drivers in the global CH 4 cycle, and future additions of sites in tropical ecosystems and site years of data collection will provide added value to this database. All seasonality parameters are available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4672601 (Delwiche et al., 2021). Additionally, raw FLUXNET-CH 4 data used to extract seasonality parameters can be downloaded from https://fluxnet.org/data/fluxnet-ch4-community-product/ (last access: 7 April 2021), and a complete list of the 79 individual site data DOIs is provided in Table 2 of this paper.

Earth System Science Data↗
USGS2021

Belowground productivity varies by assessment technique, vegetation type, and nutrient availability in tidal freshwater forested wetlands transitioning to marsh

Wetlands along upper estuaries are characterized by dynamic transitions between forested and herbaceous communities (marsh) as salinity, hydroperiod, and nutrients change. The importance of belowground net primary productivity (BNPP) associated with fine and coarse root growth also changes but remains the dominant component of overall productivity in these important blue carbon wetlands. Appropriate BNPP assessment techniques to use in various tidal wetlands are not well-defined, and could make a difference in BNPP estimation. We hypothesized that different BNPP techniques applied among tidal wetlands differ in estimation of BNPP and possibly also correlate differently with porewater nutrient concentrations. We compare 6-month and 12-month root ingrowth, serial soil coring techniques utilizing two different calculations, and a mass balance approach (TBCA, Total Belowground Carbon Allocation) among four tidal wetland types along each of two river systems transitioning from freshwater forest to marsh. Median values of BNPP were 266 to 2946 g/m 2 /year among all techniques used, with lower BNPP estimation from root ingrowth cores and TBCA (266–416 g/m 2 /year), and higher BNPP estimation from serial coring of standing crop root biomass (using Smalley and Max-Min calculation methods) (2336–2946 g/m 2 /year). Root turnover (or longevity) to a soil depth of 30 cm was 2.2/year (1.3 years), 2.7/year (1.1 years), 4.5/year (0.9 years), and 1.2/year (2.6 years), respectively, for Upper Forest, Middle Forest, Lower Forest, and Marsh. Marsh had greater root biomass and BNPP, with slower root turnover (greater root longevity) versus forested wetlands. Soil porewater concentrations of NH 3 and reactive phosphorus stimulated BNPP in the marsh when assessed with short-deployment BNPP techniques, indicating that pulses of mineralized nutrients may stimulate BNPP to facilitate marsh replacement of forested wetlands. Overall, ingrowth techniques appeared to represent forested wetland BNPP adequately, while serial coring may be necessary to represent herbaceous plant BNPP from rhizomes as marshes replace forested wetlands.

Georgia, South Carolina↗
USGS2021

Forest thinning in the seaward fringe speeds up surface elevation increment and carbon accumulation in managed mangrove forests

Mangroves are significant carbon (C) sinks and ecological engineers as they accumulate sediments and increase soil surface elevation. Thus, the forest management practice of thinning may not only alter forest structure, but also facilitate new biogeomorphological processes that affect soil development. Thinning may create additional opportunity for understorey species, such as the light-demanding Acanthus ilicifolius , to become a more prominent vegetation component of mangroves, which may further alter soil surface elevation trajectories. Forest structure and soil surface elevation change (SEC) were monitored along transects from the landward edge (upper intertidal) to seaward fringe before and after thinning of non-native Sonneratia apetala plantations along the seaward edge of a mangrove site in China. Soil C accumulation was also evaluated. Acanthus individuals colonized the forest gaps created by Sonneratia thinning in the seaward forest edge of the intertidal zones. In the absence of other pioneer species or other mangrove propagules/seeds, Acanthus pioneers occupied the areas rapidly (from 33.6 to 72.6 stems/m 2 ), and were successful opportunists. Newly colonizing Acanthus vegetation significantly increased SEC from 25.1 mm/year before Sonneratia was thinned to 46.5 mm/year after thinning-induced Acanthus occupation. Furthermore, Acanthus occupation enhanced soil C accumulation at the seaward edge to 49.9 MgC ha −1 year −1 ; a rate twofold higher than in the Sonneratia plantation before thinning. Synthesis and applications . Prolific Acanthus growth formed small elevation mounds on the seaward forest edge, which was suspected as a positive effect induced by thinning Sonneratia plantations that further facilitated colonization of Acanthus clones. Thinning non-native Sonneratia disturbed the established zonation, altered SEC, and is facilitating further succession of these mangrove forests into un-occupied aquatic areas. Higher elevations created by Acanthus expansion (vertically and horizontally) may further promote a greater percentage of landward edge mangrove species to colonize at these more favourable intertidal elevations yielding at least short-term gains in soil carbon accumulation by altering ecosystem function. Silvicultural activity should consider unintended influences on sedimentation patterns both in situ and in adjacent habitats in tidal forests, where small elevation changes affect mangrove species habitat preferences.

Journal of Applied Ecology↗
USGS2021

Substantial hysteresis in emergent temperature sensitivity of global wetland CH4 emissions

Wetland methane (CH 4 ) emissions ( FCH 4 ) are important in global carbon budgets and climate change assessments. Currently, FCH 4 projections rely on prescribed static temperature sensitivity that varies among biogeochemical models. Meta-analyses have proposed a consistent FCH 4 temperature dependence across spatial scales for use in models; however, site-level studies demonstrate that FCH 4 are often controlled by factors beyond temperature. Here, we evaluate the relationship between FCH 4 and temperature using observations from the FLUXNET-CH 4 database. Measurements collected across the globe show substantial seasonal hysteresis between FCH 4 and temperature, suggesting larger FCH 4 sensitivity to temperature later in the frost-free season (about 77% of site-years). Results derived from a machine-learning model and several regression models highlight the importance of representing the large spatial and temporal variability within site-years and ecosystem types. Mechanistic advancements in biogeochemical model parameterization and detailed measurements in factors modulating CH 4 production are thus needed to improve global CH 4 budget assessments.

Nature Communications↗
USGS2021

Sap flow evidence of chilling injury and recovery in mangroves following a spring cold spell

Mangroves are periodically influenced in negative ways by non-freezing temperatures across their global sub-tropical range. However, physiological and morphological evidence of chilling influences to non-freezing chilling events has not been measured in field settings. In this study, we measured sap flow ( J s ) during such a chilling (but non-freezing) event in southern China and documented the reductions in J s and the recovery that ensued. We calculated tree water use (TWU) from J s measurements taken from thermal dissipation sap flow sensors on two mangrove species ( Sonneratia apetala and S. caseolaris ). This chilling event significantly injured the mangrove trees in the form of leaf scorch and massive defoliation. Diurnal variations of stem J s of both species were altered significantly after chilling. On the day of the chilling event, J s of S. caseolaris was reduced from the daily maximum of 44.1 g H 2 O m −2 s −1 to 0 immediately after chilling, which lasted throughout the remainder of the day. In contrast, S. apetala showed a certain low-temperature tolerance, while still maintaining an adequate transpiration rate after chilling, indicative of a more resilient hydraulic transport system to low temperatures. The sap flow data collected revealed substantial evidence for acute water conservation during low-temperature events, perhaps ameliorating low-temperature damage. Hence, the responses of some mangrove species with high sensitivity to low, but non-freezing, temperature (such as S. caseolaris ) may indicate that mangroves possess adaptive whole-tree strategies to cold temperature.

Trees: Structure and Function↗
USGS2021

Does geomorphology determine vulnerability of mangrove coasts to sea-level rise?

The greatest climate-based threat to coastlines worldwide is sea-level rise. We tested the hypothesis that tropical coasts fringed by mangroves and receiving high inputs of terrigenous sediment are less vulnerable to sea-level rise than biogenic systems dependent upon peat formation for vertical land development. An analysis of published data spanning a range of geomorphic settings showed that mineral accretion was a poor predictor of vulnerability to rising sea level. We additionally compared two oceanic island systems representing two extremes along this sediment gradient to further examine controls on elevation dynamics in minerogenic versus biogenic mangrove systems. Minerogenic systems characterized by intermediate to high rates of mineral sedimentation (Pacific high islands in Micronesia) were not better buffered against sea-level rise because of high subsidence rates. Peat-forming systems (Caribbean low islands in Belize) kept pace with relative sea-level rise (combined ocean and land movements) because of subsurface expansion driven by root matter accumulation. The data were not consistent with the paradigm that tropical coastlines characterized by peat-forming mangroves are generally more vulnerable to sea-level rise compared to minerogenic systems; however, they are not necessarily equally sensitive to the same external and internal forces controlling soil elevations. Our findings demonstrate that reliance on surface accretion data alone can lead to an inaccurate evaluation of coastal vulnerability and why all surface and subsurface land movements must be considered in relation to local sea-level trends to assess risk of submergence. Recognition of such differences is essential to proper management of tropical coastlines to ensure their resilience in the face of future sea-level rise.

Book chapter↗
USGS2021

Scientific contributions of the Mangrove Macrobenthos and Management (MMM) conference series, 2000-2019

The conservation of mangrove forests has become an important international policy priority in recent decades, and is mirrored by a large increase in research interest. Multiple disciplines now use mangroves as a study system, from molecular biology to social science. The variety of research conducted in mangroves is exemplified by the Mangrove Macrobenthos & Management (MMM) conference series, the world's largest gathering of researchers and practitioners dedicated to the science and conservation of the mangrove ecosystem. Established in 2000, MMM is a useful barometer with which to identify and measure research trends over the last 20 years. This study describes the history of the MMM conference series, and analyses the research presented in this series as a potential proxy of how the broader mangrove research field has changed through time. Presentations in early MMM conferences were dominated by macrobenthos studies, reflective of the origins of MMM as a forum specifically for mangrove macrobenthos research. However, later conferences have come to reflect the broader interests of the mangrove research field, and have tracked the emergence of blue carbon and other ecosystem services. Mangrove forests continue to be a rich and diverse ecosystem of study, and future MMM conferences will continue to provide a platform for impactful research and management.

Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science↗