Predicting pup-rearing habitat for Mexican wolves
Population monitoring is essential to document recovery efforts for threatened and endangered species. Mexican wolves ( Canis lupus baileyi ) are an endangered subspecies of gray wolves that historically occupied large portions of the American Southwest and Mexico. Recently, the Mexican wolf population in the United States has been growing rapidly and traditional approaches for population monitoring (e.g., capture and radio collaring) are becoming difficult and expensive as wolves expand into new areas. We developed predictive models of pup-rearing habitat (i.e., den and rendezvous sites) that could help guide future population monitoring efforts. We located 255 den sites and 129 rendezvous sites in Arizona and New Mexico, USA (1998–2023) using tracking collars and site visits. We sampled habitat conditions in wolf-occupied regions of Arizona and New Mexico and fit logistic regressions to these data following a use–available study design to estimate resource selection functions (RSF) for den and rendezvous sites. We hypothesized wolves would select areas that offered greater physical protection, lower human-disturbance, and access to reliable water sources for pup-rearing but that the relative importance of these features would differ between the denning and rendezvous site seasons. Mexican wolves selected den sites at higher elevations in steeper and rougher terrain that were closer to permanent waterbodies but farther from rural roads. Selection of rendezvous sites was also associated with higher elevations and proximity to waterbodies but varied with availability of green leaf biomass on the landscape. While still highly predictive, our rendezvous site model was less predictive than our den model (Spearman's correlation averaged 0.81 [SE = 0.05] vs. 0.90 [SE = 0.03], respectively), possibly because water and green leaf biomass are more spatially diffuse and variable because of monsoonal rains during the rendezvous site season. Our results suggest that terrain features associated with physical protection and access to reliable water were most important in characterizing suitable pup-rearing habitat for Mexican wolves. By predicting suitable den and rendezvous site habitat across portions of the Mexican Wolf Experimental Population Area, our models can help guide future population monitoring by reducing the total search area when surveying for wolves and increase the probability of detecting all members of a pack.