Glacier-related outburst floods
Water bodies impounded by glaciers, moraines, and ice jams on rivers can drain suddenly, with disastrous downstream consequences. Lakes can form at the margins of an alpine glacier or ice cap, on its surface, or at its base. Smaller pockets of water may also be present within some glaciers. In all cases, these water bodies might drain by enlarging subglacial tunnels or by mechanical collapse of the glacier dam. Many formerly stable glacier lakes have failed over the past century, in some cases repeatedly, as Earth’s atmosphere has warmed and glaciers thinned and receded. The peak discharge, duration, and volume of a subglacial outburst flood depend mainly on (1) the geometry and rate of development of the tunnel at the base of the glacier and (2) the size and geometry of the impounded water body. Discharge commonly increases exponentially during the outburst, but ends quickly when the lake empties or when the drainage tunnel is plugged by collapse of the tunnel roof or closes due to plastic ice flow. Some glacier outburst floods result from the mechanical collapse of the ice dam. In such cases, the peak flow is achieved rapidly during the collapse. Outburst floods from glacier lakes attenuate due to temporary storage of floodwaters in channels and on valley floors. Many hazardous lakes are dammed by lateral and end moraines that formed in the past two centuries when valley and cirque glaciers retreated from advanced positions reached during the Little Ice Age. Moraine dams are susceptible to failure because they are steep and relatively narrow, because they comprise loose poorly sorted sediment, and because they may contain ice cores or interstitial ice. These dams generally fail by overtopping and incision. The triggering event may be a heavy rainstorm, strong winds, or an ice avalanche or landslide into the lake that generates waves that overtop the dam. Melting of moraine ice cores and piping are other possible failure mechanisms. Outflow from a moraine-dammed lake increases as the breach enlarges and then decreases as the level of the lake falls. The moraine breach may become armored, preventing further incision, or the hydraulic gradient at the breach may decrease to a point that erosion ceases. Outburst floods from glacier- and moraine-dammed lakes typically entrain, transport, and deposit large amounts of sediment. If the channel is steeper than about 0.10-0.15 and contains abundant loose sediment, the flood likely will transform into a debris flow. Such flows may be larger and more destructive than the flood from which they formed. A period of protracted warming is required to trap lakes behind moraines and create conditions that lead to dam failure. The warming also forces glaciers to retreat, prompting ice avalanches, and landslides that have destroyed many moraine dams.