Characterizing the long-term (1981–2023) temperature and precipitation dynamics in the Trans-Mountain regions of Kazakhstan, Central Asia
Mountain regions are highly climate-sensitive, yet long-term observational evidence of elevation and seasonal climate dynamics in Central Asia remains limited. This study examines spatiotemporal trends in temperature (Tmean, Tmax, Tmin, and diurnal temperature range [DTR]) and precipitation across Kazakhstan’s transmountain regions using 74 meteorological stations (1981–2023). Data were analyzed using the Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimator, stratified across six elevation zones from lowlands (<400 m) to high mountains (>1500 m). Results reveal a robust, spatially coherent warming signal across all zones. Annual Tmean increased at a median rate of ~0.30 °C decade −1 , peaking at 0.36 °C decade −1 above 1500 m, corresponding to an absolute increase exceeding 1.5 °C. Warming exhibited strong seasonal and diurnal asymmetries. Spring warmed most rapidly, with Tmean increasing >0.60 °C decade −1 (approaching 3 °C total). Winter warming was driven by Tmin increases (up to 0.44 °C decade −1 ), causing widespread DTR contraction, whereas summer warming was driven by Tmax increases, expanding DTR at higher elevations. Tmin showed the strongest elevation amplification overall. In stark contrast, precipitation trends were weak, spatially heterogeneous, and largely non-significant. Annual changes ranged from −6.63 to +14.35 mm decade −1 , with seasonal tendencies indicating modest, non-significant winter/spring wetting and summer drying. Ultimately, the results demonstrate a profound decoupling between strong, elevation-dependent warming and weak precipitation changes. The acute amplification of temperature, particularly during spring and summer at high elevations, has severe implications for snowmelt timing, glacier mass balance, evapotranspiration demand, and long-term water security in Kazakhstan.