Genetic similarity between mates and extra-pair parentage in three species of shorebirds
Matings between close relatives often reduce the fitness of offspring, probably because homozygosity leads to the expression of recessive deleterious alleles 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 . Studies of several animals have shown that reproductive success is lower when genetic similarity between parents is high 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , and that survival and other measures of fitness increase with individual levels of genetic diversity 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 . These studies indicate that natural selection may favour the avoidance of matings with genetically similar individuals. But constraints on social mate choice, such as a lack of alternatives, can lead to pairing with genetically similar mates. In such cases, it has been suggested that females may seek extra-pair copulations with less related males 4 , but the evidence is weak or lacking 4 , 5 . Here we report a strong positive relationship between the genetic similarity of social pair members and the occurrence of extra-pair paternity and maternity (‘quasi-parasitism’) in three species of shorebirds. We propose that extra-pair parentage may represent adaptive behavioural strategies to avoid the negative effects of pairing with a genetically similar mate.