Geology topics

E. Randall Bayless

Publications and source records attributed to E. Randall Bayless.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

USGS2026

Computing flow-field distortion coefficients from well-construction and formation properties

Direct measurements of groundwater velocity made with borehole flowmeters in screened wells must be compensated for the effects of flow-field distortion (also known as borehole acceleration). A theoretical equation developed by Drost et al. (1968) and simple inputs describing hydraulic properties of well construction and geologic formation were programmed into an Excel workbook to facilitate computation by groundwater-flowmeter users. Tables describing the physical and hydraulic properties for well constructions and gravel pack media are provided with an example to facilitate use of the workbook. Groundwater flowlines converge or diverge as they pass from a geologic formation, through a gravel pack and well screen. The extent of flowline convergence or divergence and the value of the flow-field distortion coefficient is related to the relative changes in hydraulic conductivity of the well screen, gravel pack, and geologic formation. Convergence or divergence is accompanied by acceleration or deceleration of groundwater. Direct measurements of groundwater velocity at the center of the monitoring well can be adjusted to provide a more accurate estimate of velocity in the formation by applying a correction for flow-field distortion. Variables required to compute the flow-field distortion coefficient include the hydraulic conductivity of the gravel pack, well screen, and the geologic formation surrounding the well screen; the borehole radius, and the inside radius and outside radius of the well screen.

Groundwater↗

USGS2025

Road salt collection and redistribution at an urban rain garden on sandy soil, Gary, Indiana

Rain gardens installed as green infrastructure to divert storm runoff from entering combined sewers also collect dissolved constituents and particulates. An urban rain garden in northwestern Indiana, USA, was continuously monitored from November 2019 to May 2021 to evaluate the fate of dissolved constituents entering the rain garden in runoff. Physical and chemical properties of soils in the rain garden were also monitored, along with underlying groundwater. Linear regression models relating specific conductance to chloride concentration indicated that the 0.0371-ha (3998 square feet) rain garden collected approximately 1490 kg (3285 pounds) of road salt from the surrounding 0.2228 ha (24,500 square feet) of impervious surfaces. Soils and groundwater were seasonally affected by road salt application but carryover from year to year was not indicated. Rain garden soil permeability (5.20 × 10 −5 to 9.72 × 10 −5 m/s) remained unchanged during the study period and soil organic carbon generally increased under native vegetation. The results suggest that a rain garden built on sandy soil can divert substantial quantities of runoff and dissolved constituents from combined sewers; however, chloride is transported to sub-infrastructure groundwater that eventually discharges to adjacent waterways with concentrations lower than those observed in runoff.

Indiana↗

USGS2022

Stormwater reduction and water budget for a rain garden on sandy soil, Gary, Indiana, 2016–18

Stormwater reduction measures, or green infrastructure, were implemented in the parking area at Gary City Hall, Gary, Indiana, with the intention of reducing stormwater discharge to the sewers. A study area, including a centrally located rain garden and the surrounding paved surfaces and green space, was instrumented during both a preconstruction and a postconstruction period to (1) develop water budgets to improve understanding of the rain garden hydrology and (2) determine the quantity of stormwater runoff that was diverted and retained by the green infrastructure instead of reaching the combined storm and sanitary sewer. The study was focused on warm-season precipitation and was monitored during spring, summer, and fall of 2016, 2017 and 2018. Before construction of the rain garden in the parking lot of Gary City Hall in 2017, nearly all precipitation was conveyed away from the parking lot by underground drains, discharged to the sewer, and treated as sanitary waste at the Gary Sanitary District’s treatment plant or discharged directly to local waterways if stormflow exceeded capabilities of the sewage treatment plant. A goal of the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative is the reduction of sewer overflows to local waterways to improve the quality of water entering the Great Lakes. Cities such as Gary benefit financially and environmentally by reducing discharges of stormwater runoff to the sewer system, eliminating the need for treatment. Before implementation of green infrastructure at Gary City Hall, approximately 25 percent of precipitation (approximately 10,200 cubic feet) discharged as stormwater to the sewers through the parking lot drain. After implementation, 2 percent of precipitation discharged to the sewers. For the spring, summer, and fall seasons of 2017 and 2018, 21–24 percent (about 10,700–19,700 cubic feet) of precipitation was captured by the newly installed rain garden. Stormwater discharged to the rain garden infiltrated the sandy soil and was later evaporated from the soil surface, was transpired by plants, or recharged the underlying groundwater aquifer. The percent reduction in stormwater discharged to the storm sewer after the construction of the rain garden was 80.3 percent, equating to approximately 21,400 and 39,300 gallons of stormwater in 2017 and 2018, respectively.

Indiana↗

USGS2022

Green infrastructure in the Great Lakes—Assessment of performance, barriers, and unintended consequences

The Great Lakes Basin covers around 536,393 square kilometers, and the Great Lakes hold more than 5,400 cubic miles of water, accounting for more than 20 percent of the world’s fresh surface water supply. The Great Lakes provide a source of drinking water to tens of millions of people in Canada and the United States and support one of the most diverse ecosystems in the world. Increasing urbanization combined with aging infrastructure and more extreme storm events because of changing weather patterns creates stormwater management challenges for communities across the Great Lakes region. A variety of green infrastructure (GI) practices, designed to decrease runoff and improve water quality, have been implemented throughout the region in response to these challenges; however, implementation often remains limited to local efforts and with little coordination among various levels of government because of, at least in part, a lack of clear standards for stormwater, limited funding, and a general uncertainty in the type and expected performance of these practices. City planners, engineers, and political leaders often see GI investment as riskier than other alternatives despite studies that determined, in most cases, practices can either reduce or not affect costs. This report summarizes selected published reports and data sources from studies done in Great Lakes states and compares the measured effects of various GI practices and their applicability in different settings around the Great Lakes. By summarizing selected published reports and data sources from studies done in Great Lakes states, this report provides foundational information for U.S. Geological Survey scientists and their local and national partners to assess the ability of GI to reduce stormwater runoff in Great Lakes urban areas. GI includes a variety of stormwater management techniques designed to mimic natural hydrologic processes like infiltration and evapotranspiration, which can decrease the volume of water running into sewers and streams. It can also improve water quality by trapping sediment, nutrients, and other contaminants. A variety of landscape practices can be incorporated into urban areas as GI, but the discussion here is limited to vegetated basins, vegetated channels, permeable pavement, urban tree canopy, and green roofs. Other types of GI, such as downspout disconnection, rainwater harvesting, and wet and dry detention basins were not included because hydrologic function and associated components are not widely monitored or evaluated in literature.

Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, ↗

USGS2021

Accuracy of flowmeters measuring horizontal flow in fractured-rock simulators

Laboratory evaluations of flowmeter response to flow in fractured-rock simulators are needed to improve understanding of data collected in field settings. The ability of flowmeters to accurately measure the velocity and direction of water flowing between parallel plates was used as a surrogate for instrument response in fractured-rock aquifers. A colloidal borescope flowmeter and a heat-pulse flowmeter were deployed in a fractured rock simulator with 4-inch and 6-inch inner-diameter, uncased wells with 0.39- and 1.0-inch fracture apertures and groundwater velocities from 35 to 975 ft/d. The colloidal borescope measurements and applied velocities were positively correlated in all wells and apertures (the coefficient of determination [ r 2 ] = 0.61–0.89) and most accurately measured direction at higher velocities. The mean directional error in colloidal borescope measurements was less than 17° in 6-inch wells and 31° in the 4-inch wells at velocities between 92 and 958 ft/d. Heat-pulse flowmeter measurements were 0.001 to 0.004 times less than applied rates and may indicate that water was moving around rather than through the instrument's integrated packer. The mean directional error of heat-pulse flowmeter measurements were about 18 and 42° in the 0.39- and 1.0-inch fractures, respectively, for groundwater velocities within the manufacturer's suggested range of application (0.5–100 ft/d). Measurements made at vertical increments and fracture positions in the well using the colloidal borescope indicate that laminar flow occurs within the central 50% of the fracture but measurements above or below are likely affected by eddy currents.

Groundwater Monitoring & Remediation↗

USGS2021

Hydrologic and ecological investigations in the School Branch watershed, Hendricks County, Indiana—Water years 2016–2018

School Branch in Hendricks County in central Indiana, is a small stream with a variety of agricultural and suburban land uses that drains into the Eagle Creek Reservoir, a major source of drinking water for Indianapolis, Indiana. The School Branch watershed has become the focus of a collaborative partnership of Federal, State, and local agencies; a university research center; and agricultural producers to understand the effects of land use and management practices on water quality and water quantity in the watershed. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Indiana Department of Environmental Management, contributed to the School Branch partnership with the operation of three streamgages (03353415 School Branch at Maloney Road near Brownsburg, Indiana; 03353420 School Branch at County Road 750 North at Brownsburg, Indiana; and 03353430 School Branch at Noble Drive at Brownsburg, Indiana) and the operation of a continuous water-quality gage (also known as a supergage) at County Road 750 North that measured dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, specific conductance, turbidity, nitrate, and orthophosphate. Additional efforts included the use of passive samplers to identify wastewater indicators; assessment of fish and macroinvertebrate communities and stream habitat to identify ecological impairment; sampling for nutrients and sediment to estimate loads; and using major ions, stable isotopes and nested groundwater monitoring wells at County Road 750 North to determine hydrologic connectivity between the groundwater and surface water. The objectives of this study were to collect surface and groundwater data to analyze the hydrology and water quality within the watershed. Total nitrogen yields were highest at the upstream site, Maloney Road, and indicated a mixture of nitrogen sources in the watershed. Differences found in total nitrogen loading patterns throughout the watershed may be linked to differences in hydrology and land-use management from site to site. The groundwater and surface water were shown to be highly connected, and except for some low-flow periods, the water was flowing from groundwater to the stream for most of the study period. Fish and macroinvertebrate communities show improvement from upstream to downstream, with increases in diversity, richness, and species sensitive to poor water quality and habitat. These increases were most likely due to improved habitat quality at the downstream station.

Indiana↗

USGS2019

Comparison of groundwater-model construction methods, representations of glacial geology, model designs, and groundwater-model flow simulations within Elkhart County, Indiana

Automated data-processing methods allow hydrologists to efficiently incorporate digital well-record datasets into the construction of hydrostratigraphic frameworks for groundwater-flow models. The method selected to construct the hydrostratigraphic framework can affect the extent of geologic heterogeneity that can be included in the model. The detail generated from a hydrostratigraphic framework can affect groundwater simulation results. The effects of detail on model accuracy, groundwater-flow simulations, and particle-tracking simulations are described in this study. This report compares differences in hydrostratigraphic frameworks and results of groundwater models using (1) a method that incorporates more hydrologic judgment at the expense of using limited lithologic data and (2) a method that is more automated and uses all available lithologic data. The study additionally evaluates the effect of model discretization and inclusion of more (or less) geologic detail on simulation results. Two methods were used to create hydrostratigraphic frameworks of glacial deposits in the St. Joseph River Basin. One method, referred to as the subjective method, manually identifies stratigraphic boundaries using a sample of well logs from State databases and uses two-dimensional kriging to create three model layers of the study area. Indicator kriging is used to define aquifer extent in each layer. The second method, referred to as the objective method, uses three-dimensional kriging to automatically create a detailed heterogeneous model of the study area using all wells logs from the State database. The objective method increases detail in the vertical by greatly increasing the number of computer groundwater model layers from 3 to 30. In Elkhart County, Indiana, a previously published model represents the product of the subjective method, and a newly calibrated model of the same area represents the product of the objective method. An automated calibration procedure was used with the objective model (derived from the objective method) for Elkhart County. The two most-sensitive parameters for the Elkhart County objective model are horizontal hydraulic conductivity of the sand and the combined sand and gravel/gravel deposits. Vertical hydraulic conductivity of the fine-grained and intermediate-sized deposits could not be estimated, possibly indicating major flow paths are along a continuously connected series of sand and gravel deposits and not through a confining layer. The statistics measuring model calibration accuracy for the objective model were slightly better than statistics for the subjective model (model derived from the subjective method) of Elkhart County, but the hydraulic conductivities and flow rates for the two models were different. The mean absolute errors between simulated and measured groundwater levels are 2.04 and 2.16 feet for the objective and subjective models, respectively. Simulated seepage losses from and groundwater discharges to measured stream reaches in the objective model were evenly balanced in terms of over and under simulations of measured values; the subjective model tended to overpredict measured groundwater discharge to streams. The overprediction may be related to the 58 percent greater total inflow and outflow through the subjective model. The greater flow rate through the subjective model results from higher horizontal hydraulic conductivities in the subjective model than in the objective model. Horizontal hydraulic conductivity ranged from 23.9 to 111 feet per day in the objective model and generally ranged from 170 to 370 feet per day in the subjective model. The improvement in calibration statistics for the objective model relative to the subjective model may be from increased detail in how the objective model represents the distribution of fine- and coarse-grained deposits. The improvement also could be associated with the difference in methods used to represent the continuity of the confining unit. The effect of differences in horizontal hydraulic conductivity distributions between the two models for Elkhart County is evident in the groundwater-flow paths simulated by the objective and subjective models. At a withdrawal well location, the flow lines produced by the objective model indicate a wider contributing area than that for the subjective model. The discontinuous confining unit represented in the objective model provided the opportunity for groundwater flow to split into an upper and lower path. The split in flow simulated by the objective model at one location was independently supported by bromide concentrations in groundwater; the subjective model did not duplicate the split in flow.

Indiana↗

USGS2017

Maps and grids of hydrogeologic information created from standardized water-well drillers’ records of the glaciated United States

As part of the National Water Availability and Use Program established by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in 2005, this study took advantage of about 14 million records from State-managed collections of water-well drillers’ records and created a database of hydrogeologic properties for the glaciated United States. The water-well drillers’ records were standardized to be relatively complete and error-free and to provide consistent variables and naming conventions that span all State boundaries. Maps and geospatial grids were developed for (1) total thickness of glacial deposits, (2) total thickness of coarse-grained deposits, (3) specific-capacity based transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity, and (4) texture-based estimated equivalent horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity. The information included in these maps and grids is required for most assessments of groundwater availability, in addition to having applications to studies of groundwater flow and transport. The texture-based estimated equivalent horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity were based on an assumed range of hydraulic conductivity values for coarse- and fine-grained deposits and should only be used with complete awareness of the methods used to create them. However, the maps and grids of texture-based estimated equivalent hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity may be useful for application to areas where a range of measured values is available for re-scaling. Maps of hydrogeologic information for some States are presented as examples in this report but maps and grids for all States are available electronically at the project Web site (USGS Glacial Aquifer System Groundwater Availability Study, http://mi.water.usgs.gov/projects/WaterSmart/Map-SIR2015-5105.html ) and the Science Base Web site, https://www.sciencebase.gov/catalog/item/58756c7ee4b0a829a3276352 .

Alaska, Connecticut, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iow↗

USGS2014

Surface-water and karst groundwater interactions and streamflow-response simulations of the karst-influenced upper Lost River watershed, Orange County, Indiana

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and the Indiana Office of Community and Rural Affairs (OCRA), conducted a study of the upper Lost River watershed in Orange County, Indiana, from 2012 to 2013. Streamflow and groundwater data were collected at 10 data-collection sites from at least October 2012 until April 2013, and a preliminary Water Availability Tool for Environmental Resources (WATER)-TOPMODEL based hydrologic model was created to increase understanding of the complex, karstic hydraulic and hydrologic system present in the upper Lost River watershed, Orange County, Ind. Statistical assessment of the optimized hydrologic-model results were promising and returned correlation coefficients for simulated and measured stream discharge of 0.58 and 0.60 and Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency values of 0.56 and 0.39 for USGS streamflow-gaging stations 03373530 (Lost River near Leipsic, Ind.), and 03373560 (Lost River near Prospect, Ind.), respectively. Additional information to refine drainage divides is needed before applying the model to the entire karst region of south-central Indiana. Surface-water and groundwater data were used to tentatively quantify the complex hydrologic processes taking place within the watershed and provide increased understanding for future modeling and management applications. The data indicate that during wet-weather periods and after certain intense storms, the hydraulic capacity of swallow holes and subsurface conduits is overwhelmed with excess water that flows onto the surface in dry-bed relic stream channels and karst paleovalleys. Analysis of discharge data collected at USGS streamflow-gaging station 03373550 (Orangeville Rise, at Orangeville, Ind.), and other ancillary data-collection sites in the watershed, indicate that a bounding condition is likely present, and drainage from the underlying karst conduit system is potentially limited to near 200 cubic feet per second. This information will direct future studies and assist managers in understanding when the subsurface conduits may become overwhelmed.

Indiana↗

USGS2013

Hydrologic data and groundwater flow simulations in the vicinity of Long Lake, Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, near Gary, Indiana

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) collected data and simulated groundwater flow to increase understanding of the hydrology and the effects of drainage alterations to the water table in the vicinity of Long Lake, near Gary, Indiana. East Long Lake and West Long Lake (collectively known as Long Lake) make up one of the largest interdunal lakes within the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. The National Park Service is tasked with preservation and restoration of wetlands in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore along the southern shoreline of Lake Michigan. Urban development and engineering have modified drainage and caused changes in the distribution of open water, streams and ditches, and groundwater abundance and flow paths. A better understanding of the effects these modifications have on the hydrologic system in the area will help the National Park Service, the Gary Sanitary District (GSD), and local stakeholders manage and protect the resources within the study area. This study used hydrologic data and steady-state groundwater simulations to estimate directions of groundwater flow and the effects of various engineering controls and climatic conditions on the hydrology near Long Lake. Periods of relatively high and low groundwater levels were examined and simulated by using MODFLOW and companion software. Simulated hydrologic modifications examined the effects of (1) removing the beaver dams in US-12 ditch, (2) discontinuing seepage of water from the filtration pond east of East Long Lake, (3) discontinuing discharge from US-12 ditch to the GSD sewer system, (4) decreasing discharge from US-12 ditch to the GSD sewer system, (5) connecting East Long Lake and West Long Lake, (6) deepening County Line Road ditch, and (7) raising and lowering the water level of Lake Michigan. Results from collected hydrologic data indicate that East Long Lake functioned as an area of groundwater recharge during October 2002 and a “flow-through” lake during March 2011, with the groundwater divide south of US-12. Wetlands to the south of West Long Lake act as points of recharge to the surficial aquifer in both dry- and wet-weather conditions. Among the noteworthy results from a dry-weather groundwater flow model simulation are (1) US-12 ditch does not receive water from East Long Lake or West Long Lake, (2) the filtration pond at the east end of East Long Lake, when active, contributed approximately 10 percent of the total water entering East Long Lake, and (3) County Line Road ditch has little effect on simulated water level. Among the noteworthy results from a wet-weather groundwater flow simulation are (1) US-12 ditch does not receive water from East Long Lake or West Long Lake, (2) when the seepage from the filtration pond to the surficial aquifer is not active, sources of inflow to East Long Lake are restricted to only precipitation (46 percent of total) and inflow from the surficial aquifer (54 percent of total), and (3) County Line Road ditch bisects the groundwater divide and creates two water-table mounds south of US-12. The results from a series of model scenarios simulating certain engineering controls and changes in Lake Michigan levels include the following: (1) The simulated removal of beaver dams in US-12 ditch during a wet-weather simulation increased discharge from the ditch to the Gary Sanitary system by 13 percent. (2) Discontinuation of seepage from the filtration pond east of East Long Lake decreased discharge from US-12 ditch to the Gary Sanitary system by 2.3 percent. (3) Simulated discontinuation of discharge from the US-12 ditch to the GSD sewer system increased the area where the water table was estimated to be above the land surface beyond the inundated area in the initial wet-weather simulation. (4) Simulated modifications to the control structure at the discharge point of US-12 ditch to the GSD sewer system can decrease discharge by as much as 61 percent while increasing the simulated inundated area during dry weather and decrease discharge as much as 6 percent while increasing the simulated inundated area during wet weather. (5) Deepening of County Line Road ditch can decrease the discharge from US-12 ditch by 26 percent during dry weather and 24 percent during wet weather, as well as decrease the extent of flooded areas south and east of the filtration pond near Ogden Dunes. (7) The increase of the Lake Michigan water level to match the historical maximum can increase the discharge from US-12 ditch by 14 percent during dry weather and by 9.6 percent during wet weather. (8) The decrease of the Lake Michigan water level to match the historical minimum can decrease the discharge from US-12 ditch by 7.4 percent during dry weather and by 3.1 percent during wet weather. The results of this study can be used by water-resource managers to understand how surrounding ditches affect water levels in East and West Long Lake and in the surrounding wetlands and residential areas. The groundwater model developed in this study can be applied in the future to answer questions about how alterations to the drainage system in the area will affect water levels in East and West Long Lake and surrounding areas. The modeling methods developed in this study provide a template for other studies of groundwater flow and groundwater/surface-water interactions within the shallow surficial aquifer in northern Indiana, and in similar hydrologic settings that include surficial sand aquifers in coastal settings.

Indiana↗

USGS2013

Geophysical-log and hydraulic-test analyses of groundwater-production wells at the Hannahville Indian Community, Menominee County, Michigan

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Hannahville Indian Community, evaluated the geohydrology of the bedrock formations and hydraulic properties of groundwater-production wells at the Hannahville Indian Community in Menominee County, Michigan. Geophysical logs were collected from five wells at two sites during September 2012. The logs were analyzed to characterize the lithostratigraphy, bedding and fractures, and hydraulic properties of the geologic formations and aquifers beneath the Hannahville Indian Community. The geophysical logs collected included natural gamma radiation, electromagnetic conductivity, wellbore image, caliper, ambient and stressed flowmeter, fluid resistivity, temperature, and wellbore deviation. The geophysical logs were analyzed with results from short-term hydraulic tests to estimate the transmissivity and water-level altitudes of flow zones penetrated by the wells. The geophysical log analysis indicated the wells penetrated four distinct lithostratigraphic units—shale and carbonate rock, upper carbonate rock, carbonate rock and glauconitic sandstone, and lower carbonate rock. Most of the fractures penetrated by the wellbores appeared to be related bedding partings. The lower carbonate rock unit contained solution features. Analysis of the geophysical logs and hydraulic tests indicated that each of the five wells penetrated from one to four flow zones. The Casino 5 well penetrated a flow zone that was associated with solution features and had an estimated total transmissivity of 4,280 feet squared per day (ft 2 /d), the highest estimate for all the wells. The Casino 3 well penetrated four flow zones and had an estimated total transmissivity of 3,570 ft 2 /d. The flow zones penetrated in the lower carbonate rock unit by the Casino 3 and 5 wells were hydraulically connected. The Golf Shack well penetrated two flow zones and had an estimated total transmissivity of 40 ft 2 /d, the lowest estimate for all the wells. The Community 1 and Community 2 wells penetrated three and four flow zones, respectively, and had estimated total transmissivity values of 185 and 280 ft 2 /d, respectively.

Michigan↗

USGS2011

Hydrogeology and simulation of groundwater flow at the Green Valley reclaimed coal refuse site near Terre Haute, Indiana

The Green Valley reclaimed coal refuse site, near Terre Haute, Ind., was mined for coal from 1948 to 1963. Subsurface coal was cleaned and sorted at land surface, and waste material was deposited over the native glacial till. Approximately 2.7 million cubic yards of waste was deposited over 159 acres (92.3 hectares) in tailings ponds and gob piles. During 1993, the Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Division of Reclamation, improved the site by grading gob piles, filling tailings ponds, and covering the refuse with a layer of glacial drift. During 2008, the Division of Reclamation and U.S. Geological Survey initiated a cooperative investigation to characterize the hydrogeology of the site and construct a calibrated groundwater flow model that could be used to simulate the results of future remedial actions. In support of the modeling, a data-collection network was installed at the Green Valley site to measure weather components, geophysical properties, groundwater levels, and stream and seep flow. Results of the investigation indicate that (1) there is negligible overland flow from the site, (2) the prevailing groundwater-flow direction is from northeast to southwest, with a much smaller drainage to the northeast, (3) there is not a direct hydraulic connection between the refuse and West Little Sugar Creek, (4) about 24 percent of the groundwater recharge emerges through seeps, and water from the seeps evaporates or eventually flows to West Little Sugar Creek and the Green Valley Mine Pond, and (5) about 72 percent of groundwater recharge moves vertically downward from the coal refuse into the till and follows long, slow flow paths to eventual dischage points.

Indiana↗

USGS2010

Predicting unsaturated zone nitrogen mass balances in agricultural settings of the United States

Unsaturated zone N fate and transport were evaluated at four sites to identify the predominant pathways of N cycling: an almond [ Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb] orchard and cornfield ( Zea mays L.) in the lower Merced River study basin, California; and corn–soybean [ Glycine max (L.) Merr.] rotations in study basins at Maple Creek, Nebraska, and at Morgan Creek, Maryland. We used inverse modeling with a new version of the Root Zone Water Quality Model (RZWQM2) to estimate soil hydraulic and nitrogen transformation parameters throughout the unsaturated zone; previous versions were limited to 3-m depth and relied on manual calibration. The overall goal of the modeling was to derive unsaturated zone N mass balances for the four sites. RZWQM2 showed promise for deeper simulation profiles. Relative root mean square error (RRMSE) values for predicted and observed nitrate concentrations in lysimeters were 0.40 and 0.52 for California (6.5 m depth) and Nebraska (10 m), respectively, and index of agreement ( d ) values were 0.60 and 0.71 ( d varies between 0 and 1, with higher values indicating better agreement). For the shallow simulation profile (1 m) in Maryland, RRMSE and d for nitrate were 0.22 and 0.86, respectively. Except for Nebraska, predictions of average nitrate concentration at the bottom of the simulation profile agreed reasonably well with measured concentrations in monitoring wells. The largest additions of N were predicted to come from inorganic fertilizer (153–195 kg N ha −1 yr −1 in California) and N fixation (99 and 131 kg N ha −1 yr −1 in Maryland and Nebraska, respectively). Predicted N losses occurred primarily through plant uptake (144–237 kg N ha −1 yr −1 ) and deep seepage out of the profile (56–102 kg N ha −1 yr −1 ). Large reservoirs of organic N (up to 17,500 kg N ha −1 m −1 at Nebraska) were predicted to reside in the unsaturated zone, which has implications for potential future transfer of nitrate to groundwater.

Journal of Environmental Quality↗

USGS2006

Hydrologic Characteristics of a Managed Wetland and a Natural Riverine Wetland along the Kankakee River in Northwestern Indiana

Characteristics of ground-water/surface-water interactions were identified at a managed wetland (Hog Marsh) and a natural riverine wetland (LaSalle) located on the north and south sides, respectively, of the Kankakee River in northwestern Indiana. Hog Marsh covers about 390 hectares of the Grand Kankakee Marsh County Park. LaSalle covers about 100 hectares of the LaSalle State Fish and Wildlife Area, and is about 20 kilometers downstream of Hog Marsh. Hydrologic characteristics of the two wetlands were investigated using data from 1997 to 1999 for 22 wells adjacent to the Kankakee River in northwestern Indiana. Surface-water levels at the managed wetland were controlled by a system of channels, levees, and managed flooding. Surface-water levels at the natural riverine wetland were not controlled. Ground-water levels in the unconfined surficial aquifer beneath the two wetlands were analyzed by assessing water-level fluctuations. Fifteen wells at Hog Marsh and seven wells at LaSalle were monitored. The interquartile range in ground-water levels away from the river at Hog Marsh fluctuated less (from 0.4 to 0.7 meters) than all ground-water levels in the same aquifer beneath LaSalle (from 0.9 to 1.0 meters). The difference in the range of water-level fluctuation probably is attributable to the managed flooding of Hog Marsh units, which tends to maintain somewhat uniform water levels in that wetland. Ground-water-flow directions along a vertical section through the unconfined surficial aquifer at the managed wetland were more variable than those at the natural riverine wetland. During winter and spring, when flow in the Kankakee River is high, flow is from the Kankakee River into the adjacent surficial aquifer and towards a 2-meter-wide Brown Ditch on the north side of Hog Marsh. Water levels in Brown Ditch remain lower than those in the Kankakee River during this period. From June to December, when flow in the Kankakee River is moderate to low, a flow divide developed near the center of the managed wetland. Ground-water flow south of the divide is to the Kankakee River; north of the divide, it is toward Brown Ditch. Slight ground-water mounding near the center of the managed wetland is accentuated by water-management practices that intentionally flood that area. Ground-water flow in the surficial aquifer at the natural riverine wetland was not impeded by ditches or managed flooding, and a simple flow-through system from areas south of the Kankakee River to the river was observed. A ground-water flow model was constructed along a representative cross section through the surficial aquifer at the managed wetland and calibrated using data collected at the site. A no-flow boundary was used beneath the Kankakee River, and head-dependent boundaries were used along the north end of the model and at the base of the model. The model simulations indicated that artificial controls on the managed-wetland hydrology create sites of recharge to and discharge from the surficial aquifer that are absent at the natural riverine wetland. The steady-state flow simulation represented flow conditions following a 4-month period of no changes in hydrologic stresses. The simulation results indicated that flow paths originating from flooded areas near the center of the managed wetland are sources of aquifer recharge during the managed-flooding period. Brown Ditch captured almost all of the ground water north of the managed wetland. The simulated water budget along a well transect indicated that 88 percent of inflow to the surficial aquifer beneath the managed wetland was from a distribution channel and from flooding in the management units. These modeling results identify differences in flow patterns between the managed and natural riverine wetlands in addition to those identified by the water-level data. Results of transient simulations indicated that surface water from the Kankakee River penetrated only about 2 to 3 meters into the surficial aquif

Indiana↗

USGS2005

Evaluation of unsaturated-zone solute-transport models for studies of agricultural chemicals

Seven unsaturated-zone solute-transport models were tested with two data sets to select models for use by the Agricultural Chemical Team of the U.S. Geological Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment Program. The data sets were from a bromide tracer test near Merced, California, and an atrazine study in the White River Basin, Indiana. In this study the models are designated either as complex or simple based on the water flux algorithm. The complex models, HYDRUS2D, LEACHP, RZWQM, and VS2DT, use Richards' equation to simulate water flux and are well suited to process understanding. The simple models, CALF, GLEAMS, and PRZM, use a tipping-bucket algorithm and are more amenable to extrapolation because they require fewer input parameters. The purpose of this report is not to endorse a particular model, but to describe useful features, potential capabilities, and possible limitations that emerged from working with the model input data sets. More rigorous assessment of model applicability involves proper calibration, which was beyond the scope of this study. Uncalibrated ("cold") simulations were run using all seven models to predict the transport of bromide (Merced) and the transport and fate of atrazine and three of its transformation products (White River Basin). Among the complex models, HYDRUS2D successfully predicted both the surface retention and accumulation of bromide at depth at the Merced site, whereas RZWQM and VS2DT predicted only the latter. RZWQM predictions of atrazine were closest to observed values at the White River Basin site, where preferential flow has been observed. LEACHP predicted smaller solute concentrations than observed at both the Merced and White River Basin sites. Among the simple models, CALF predicted the highest values of atrazine and deethylatrazine at the measurement depth of 1.5 meters. CALF includes the Addiscott flow option for preferential flow, and also accepts user-specified dispersivity. PRZM underpredicted solute concentrations, probably because control of dispersion is a problem with this model. GLEAMS has a maximum simulation depth of 1.5 meters, which is limiting for mass-balance purposes because it creates a potential disconnect between unsaturated-zone transport and the water table. Of the models tested, RZWQM, HYDRUS2D, VS2DT, GLEAMS and PRZM had graphical user interfaces. Extensive documentation was available for RZWQM, HYDRUS2D, and VS2DT. RZWQM can explicitly simulate water and solute flux in macropores, and both HYDRUS2D and VS2DT can simulate water and solute flux in two dimensions. The version of RZWQM tested had a maximum simulation depth of 3 meters. The complex models simulate the formation, transport, and fate of degradates of up to three to five compounds including the parent, with the exception of VS2DT, which simulates the transport and fate of a single compound.

California, Indiana↗

USGS2004

Use of 87 Sr/ 86 Sr and δ 11 B to Identify Slag-Affected Sediment in Southern Lake Michigan

Slag is a ubiquitous byproduct of the iron-smelting industry and influences geochemistry and water quality in adjacent geologic units, ground and surface water. Despite extensive slag deposition along the Indiana shoreline of Lake Michigan, definitive evidence that slag has affected lakebed sediments has not been established. Concerns for the protection of water and ecosystem resources in the Great Lakes motivated this study to determine if strontium and boron isotopes could be used to identify and delineate slag-affected bed sediment in Lake Michigan. Sixty-five samples of bed sediment were acquired from the southern lobe of Lake Michigan and analyzed for 87Sr/86Sr and ??11B. Samples immediately offshore from Indiana steel mills and slag-disposal sites contained higher median 87Sr/86Sr values (0.70881) than shoreline sediments collected elsewhere in the basin (0.70847) and uniquely decreased with increasing distance from the shoreline. The highest ??11B values occurred in sediments from the Indiana shoreline (+12.9 to 16.4???) but were also elevated in sediments collected offshore from three Lake Michigan cities (+11.7 to 12.7???). Contoured isotope data indicated that 82-154 km2 of bed sediment along the Indiana shoreline had elevated 87Sr/86Sr and ??11B values relative to shoreline sediments elsewhere in southern Lake Michigan.

Environmental Science & Technology↗

USGS2002

Effects of highway-deicer application on ground-water quality in a part of the Calumet Aquifer, northwestern Indiana

The effects of highway-deicer application on ground-water quality were studied at a site in northwestern Indiana using a variety of geochemical indicators. Site characteristics such as high snowfall rates; large quantities of applied deicers; presence of a high-traffic highway; a homogeneous, permeable, and unconfined aquifer; a shallow water table; a known ground-water-flow direction; and minimal potential for other sources of chloride and sodium to complicate source interpretation were used to select a study area where ground water was likely to be affected by deicer application. Forty-three monitoring wells were installed in an unconfined sand aquifer (the Calumet aquifer) near Beverly Shores in northwestern Indiana. Wells were installed along two transects that approximately paralleled groundwater flow in the Calumet aquifer and crossed US–12. US–12 is a highway that receives Indiana’s highest level of maintenance to maintain safe driving conditions. Ground-water quality and water-level data were collected from the monitoring wells, and precipitation and salt-application data were compiled from 1994 through 1997. The water-quality data indicated that chloride was the most easily traced indicator of highway deicers in ground water. Concentration ratios of chloride to iodide and chloride to bromide and Stiff diagrams of major element concentrations indicated that the principal source of chloride and sodium in ground water from the uppermost one-third to one-half of the Calumet aquifer and downgradient from US–12 was from a halite highway-deicer source. Borehole logs of relative electromagnetic conductivity defined a distinct plume of deicer-affected water in the uppermost 8 feet of aquifer at about 9 feet horizontally from the paved roadway edge and a zone of higher conductivity than background in the lower one-third of the aquifer. Chloride and sodium in the deep parts of the aquifer originated from natural sources. Chloride and sodium from highway deicers were present in the aquifer throughout the year. The highest concentrations of chloride and sodium in ground water were determined in samples collected during the spring and summer from wells open to the water table within about 9 feet of the highway. Chloride concentrations in ground water that were attributable to highway deicers also were found in tested wells about 400 feet downgradient from US–12 during the fall and winter and at greater depths than in wells closer to US–12. Chloride concentrations exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (USEPA) secondary maximum contaminant level of 250 milligrams per liter for drinking water at seven wells downgradient from the highway during late winter, spring, and summer samplings. The chloride standard was exceeded only in water from wells with total depths that are less than about 10 feet below land surface. Sodium concentrations in water periodically exceeded the USEPA drinking-water equivalency level of 20 milligrams per liter in both the uppermost (deicer 2 Effects of Highway-Deicer Application on Ground-Water Quality in a Part of the Calumet Aquifer, Northwestern Indiana affected) and lower one-thirds of the aquifer. Sodium concentrations in ground water downgradient from US–12 and in the upper 5 feet of the aquifer also occasionally exceeded drinking-water standards for sodium (160 milligrams per liter) as set by the State of Florida and a standard for taste (200 milligrams per liter) as set by the World Health Organization. Dispersion was identified by analysis of aquifer-test data, isotopic dating of ground water, and water-quality data to be the process most responsible for reducing concentrations of highway deicers in the aquifer. Chemical analyses of the sand composing the aquifer indicated that cation exchange decreased the mass of deicerrelated sodium in ground water, although the sand has a limited capacity to sustain the process. Automated daily measurements of specific conductance, correlated to chloride concentrations, indicated that some deicer is retained in the aquifer near the highway throughout the entire year and acts as a continuous chloride source for ground water. Peak concentrations of deicerrelated constituents occasionally were detected by the daily, automated measurements of specific conductance that were made between the monthly samplings of ground water. Data analysis indicated that more frequent sampling than monthly intervals would be necessary if maximum chloride concentrations were to be measured. Some deicer may be retained in the aquifer and unsaturated zone between annual salt-application periods. Chloride concentrations at wells 1-DG-WT and 2-DG-WT remained greater than background through much or all of the year. The estimated masses of chloride transported in ground water past 2-DG in 1995 and 1996 were either slightly greater than (1995) or less than (1996) the masses of chloride applied to US–12 during the study.

Indiana↗

USGS2002

Use of isotopes to identify sources of ground water, estimate ground-water-flow rates, and assess aquifer vulnerability in the Calumet region of northwestern Indiana and northeastern Illinois

Isotope data collected in the Calumet Region of northwestern Indiana and northeastern Illinois, one of the most heavily industrialized regions of the United States, indicated that water in the surficial Calumet aquifer is well mixed. The Calumet aquifer is recharged areally by precipitation and locally may be recharged by surface water. The residence time of ground water in the Calumet aquifer is approximately 5 to 15 years. Ground-water-flow rates through the Calumet aquifer are estimated to be 400 to 2,300 feet per year. The permeable deposits, shallow water table, lack of an overlying confining unit, and proximity to numerous contaminant sources indicate that the Calumet aquifer is vulnerable to contamination. Isotopic data indicate that ground water in the confining unit underlying the Calumet aquifer is derived from a variety of sources that include Lake Michigan, modern precipitation, and discharge from the basal Silurian-Devonian bedrock aquifer. The source and apparent age of the water are variable and appear to be affected locally by various geologic and hydraulic factors. The vertical ground-water-flow rate through the unweathered part of the confining unit is about 0.20 feet per year and is about 6.3 feet per year through the weathered part. The data indicate the weathered part of the confining unit may be more vulnerable to contamination than the unweathered confining unit. Ground water in the basal Silurian-Devonian aquifer is derived from Lake Michigan, glacial-age water, and modern precipitation. Post-1952 recharge has occurred in the vicinity of Stony Island, Ill. Ground-water recharge of the Silurian-Devonian aquifer may be occurring near Calumet Harbor. The Silurian-Devonian aquifer is vulnerable to contamination where the confining unit is thin or absent or where the integrity of the confining unit has been compromised.

Illinois, Indiana↗