Geology topics

Douglas G. Emerson

Publications and source records attributed to Douglas G. Emerson.

17 recordsLinked to original sources

USGS2010

An evaluation of the Wyoming Gauge System for snowfall measurement

The Wyoming snow fence (shield) has been widely used with precipitation gauges for snowfall measurement at more than 25 locations in Alaska since the late 1970s. This gauge's measurements have been taken as the reference for correcting wind‐induced gauge undercatch of snowfall in Alaska. Recently, this fence (shield) was tested in the World Meteorological Organization Solid Precipitation Measurement Intercomparison Project at four locations in the United States of America and Canada for six winter seasons. At the Intercomparison sites an octagonal vertical Double Fence with a Russian Tretyakov gauge or a Universal Belfort recording gauge was installed and used as the Intercomparison Reference (DFIR) to provide true snowfall amounts for this Intercomparison experiment. The Intercomparison data collected were compiled at the four sites that represent a variety of climate, terrain, and exposure. On the basis of these data sets the performance of the Wyoming gauge system for snowfall observations was carefully evaluated against the DFIR and snow cover data. The results show that (1) the mean snow catch efficiency of the Wyoming gauge compared with the DFIR is about 80–90%, (2) there exists a close linear relation between the measurements of the two gauge systems and this relation may serve as a transfer function to adjust the Wyoming gauge records to obtain an estimate of the true snowfall amount, (3) catch efficiency of the Wyoming gauge does not change with wind speed and temperature, and (4) Wyoming gauge measurements are generally compatible to the snowpack water equivalent at selected locations in northern Alaska. These results are important to our effort of determining true snowfall amounts in the high latitudes, and they are also useful for regional hydrologic and climatic analyses.

Water Resources Research↗

USGS2010

Movements of water, solutes, and stable isotopes in the unsaturated zones of two sand plains in the upper Midwest

Four month-long field experiments investigated movements of water and solutes through unsaturated sand plains near Princeton, Minnesota, and Oakes, North Dakota. Atrazine and bromide were applied to bare soils and soils planted with corn. The field plots were irrigated according to local farming practices. At the end of each experiment, unsaturated soils were analyzed for atrazine and bromide concentrations and oxygen and hydrogen isotope compositions of soil water. Most soil water was affected by evaporation but groundwater beneath the plots had no evaporative isotopic signature. Therefore most recharge consisted of water that was unaffected by evaporation. Sources of such water may have included snowmelt, prolonged or high-intensity rainfalls that were not interrupted by periods of drying, and water that moved through preferential flow paths. Preferential flow also was suggested by the detection of atrazine, deethylatrazine, and bromide in groundwater shortly after each application of irrigation water at Princeton and by isolated concentrations of atrazine and bromide in soil well below the main masses of chemicals at Oakes.

Minnesota, North Dakota↗

USGS2009

Solid precipitation measurement intercomparison in Bismarck, North Dakota, from 1988 through 1997

A solid precipitation measurement intercomparison was recommended by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and was initiated after approval by the ninth session of the Commission for Instruments and Methods of Observation. The goal of the intercomparison was to assess national methods of measuring solid precipitation against methods whose accuracy and reliability were known. A field study was started in Bismarck, N. Dak., during the 1988-89 winter as part of the intercomparison. The last official field season of the WMO intercomparison was 1992-93; however, the Bismarck site continued to operate through the winter of 1996-97. Precipitation events at Bismarck were categorized as snow, mixed, or rain on the basis of descriptive notes recorded as part of the solid precipitation intercomparison. The rain events were not further analyzed in this study. Catch ratios (CRs) - the ratio of the precipitation catch at each gage to the true precipitation measurement (the corrected double fence intercomparison reference) - were calculated. Then, regression analysis was used to develop equations that model the snow and mixed precipitation CRs at each gage as functions of wind speed and temperature. Wind speed at the gages, functions of temperature, and upper air conditions (wind speed and air temperature at 700 millibars pressure) were used as possible explanatory variables in the multiple regression analysis done for this study. The CRs were modeled by using multiple regression analysis for the Tretyakov gage, national shielded gage, national unshielded gage, AeroChem gage, national gage with double fence, and national gage with Wyoming windshield. As in earlier studies by the WMO, wind speed and air temperature were found to influence the CR of the Tretyakov gage. However, in this study, the temperature variable represented the average upper air temperature over the duration of the event. The WMO did not use upper air conditions in its analysis. The national shielded and unshielded gages where found to be influenced by functions of wind speed only, as in other studies, but the upper air wind speed was used as an explanatory variable in this study. The AeroChem gage was not used in the WMO intercomparison study for 1987-93. The AeroChem gage had a highly varied CR at Bismarck, and a number of variables related to wind speed and temperature were used in the model for the CR. Despite extensive efforts to find a model for the national gage with double fence, no statistically significant regression model was found at the 0.05 level of statistical significance. The national gage with Wyoming windshield had a CR modeled by temperature and wind speed variables, and the regression relation had the highest coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.572) and adjusted coefficient of multiple determination (R2a = 0.476) of all of the models identified for any gage. Three of the gage CRs evaluated could be compared with those in the WMO intercomparison study for 1987-93. The WMO intercomparison had the advantage of a much larger dataset than this study. However, the data in this study represented a longer time period. Snow precipitation catch is highly varied depending on the equipment used and the weather conditions. Much of the variation is not accounted for in the WMO equations or in the equations developed in this study, particularly for unshielded gages. Extensive attempts at regression analysis were made with the mixed precipitation data, but it was concluded that the sample sizes were not large enough to model the CRs. However, the data could be used to test the WMO intercomparison equations. The mixed precipitation equations for the Tretyakov and national shielded gages are similar to those for snow in that they are more likely to underestimate precipitation when observed amounts were small and overestimate precipitation when observed amounts were relatively large. Mixed precipitation is underestimated by the WMO adjustment and t

North Dakota↗

USGS2007

Mercury and methylmercury in water and bottom sediments of wetlands at Lostwood National Wildlife Refuge, North Dakota, 2003-04

Certain ecosystem types, particularly wetlands, have environmental characteristics that can make them particularly sensitive to mercury inputs and that can result in large mercury concentrations in fish or other aquatic biota. To provide information needed to make effective management decisions to decrease human and wildlife exposure to methylmercury in northern prairie pothole wetlands, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the North Dakota Department of Health, conducted a study to assess mercury and methylmercury concentrations in wetlands at the Lostwood National Wildlife Refuge (the Refuge) in northwest North Dakota. In April 2003 and 2004, water and bottom-sediment samples were collected from 44 individual wetlands that were classified as one of four wetland types. Many factors that may affect methylmercury production were considered in the study. The prairie pothole wetlands at the Refuge had large ranges in major environmental characteristics. Hydrologic differences, most notably semiannual wetting and drying cycles, that are intrinsic to prairie pothole wetlands affected methylmercury concentrations. This likely resulted from the stimulation of anaerobic microbial activity following reflooding of soils, particularly soils containing substantial organic carbon. Among the four wetland types considered for this study, seasonal and semipermanent wetlands generally had the largest methylmercury concentrations. Regardless of wetland type, however, methylmercury concentrations at the Refuge are large in relation to reported concentrations for natural aquatic systems.

North Dakota↗

USGS2006

Accuracy of tretyakov precipitation gauge: Result of wmo intercomparison

The Tretyakov non-recording precipitation gauge has been used historically as the official precipitation measurement instrument in the Russian (formerly the USSR) climatic and hydrological station network and in a number of other European countries. From 1986 to 1993, the accuracy and performance of this gauge were evaluated during the WMO Solid Precipitation Measurement Intercomparison at 11 stations in Canada, the USA, Russia, Germany, Finland, Romania and Croatia. The double fence intercomparison reference (DFIR) was the reference standard used at all the Intercomparison stations in the Intercomparison. The Intercomparison data collected at the different sites are compatible with respect to the catch ratio (measured/DFIR) for the same gauge, when compared using mean wind speed at the height of the gauge orifice during the observation period. The Intercomparison data for the Tretyakov gauge were compiled from measurements made at these WMO intercomparison sites. These data represent a variety of climates, terrains and exposures. The effects of environmental factors, such as wind speed, wind direction, type of precipitation and temperature, on gauge catch ratios were investigated. Wind speed was found to be the most important factor determining the gauge catch and air temperature had a secondary effect when precipitation was classified into snow, mixed and rain. The results of the analysis of gauge catch ratio versus wind speed and temperature on a daily time step are presented for various types of precipitation. Independent checks of the correction equations against the DFIR have been conducted at those Intercomparison stations and a good agreement (difference less than 10%) has been obtained. The use of such adjustment procedures should significantly improve the accuracy and homogeneity of gauge-measured precipitation data over large regions of the former USSR and central Europe.

Hydrological Processes↗

USGS2005

Evaluation of drainage-area ratio method used to estimate streamflow for the Red River of the North Basin, North Dakota and Minnesota

The drainage-area ratio method commonly is used to estimate streamflow for sites where no streamflow data were collected. To evaluate the validity of the drainage-area ratio method and to determine if an improved method could be developed to estimate streamflow, a multiple-regression technique was used to determine if drainage area, main channel slope, and precipitation were significant variables for estimating streamflow in the Red River of the North Basin. A separate regression analysis was performed for streamflow for each of three seasons-- winter, spring, and summer. Drainage area and summer precipitation were the most significant variables. However, the regression equations generally overestimated streamflows for North Dakota stations and underestimated streamflows for Minnesota stations. To correct the bias in the residuals for the two groups of stations, indicator variables were included to allow both the intercept and the coefficient for the logarithm of drainage area to depend on the group. Drainage area was the only significant variable in the revised regression equations. The exponents for the drainage-area ratio were 0.85 for the winter season, 0.91 for the spring season, and 1.02 for the summer season.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2005

Historic and naturalized monthly streamflow for selected sites in the Red River of the North Basin in North Dakota, Minnesota, and South Dakota, 1931-2001

Historic monthly streamflow data were compiled and missing historic and naturalized monthly streamflow data were estimated to develop a database of updated streamflow data for January 1931 through December 2001 (the data-development period) for 35 sites in the Red River of the North Basin. Of the 35 sites, 4 had gaged historic monthly streamflow data for the entire data-development period, 10 had gaged historic monthly streamflow data for part of the data-development period, and 21 had no gaged historic monthly streamflow data. To develop the database, a modified drainage-area ratio method, a maintenance of variance extension type 1 method, and a water-balance method were used to estimate the missing historic monthly streamflow data. Naturalized streamflow for the 35 sites was estimated by eliminating the hydrologic effects of Orwell Dam, Reservation Dam, White Rock Dam, Baldhill Dam, surfacewater withdrawals, and return flows.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2002

Historic and unregulated monthly streamflow for selected sites in the Red River of the North Basin in North Dakota, Minnesota, and South Dakota, 1931-99

Operation of the Garrison Diversion Unit in North Dakota may have various effects on the quantity and quality of streamflow in the Sheyenne River and the Red River of the North. To model the effects that the Garrison Diversion Unit could have on water quality, gaged and estimated historic streamflow data and estimated unregulated streamflow data were compiled to develop a complete monthly streamflow record for January 1931 through September 1999 (the data-development period) for 35 sites in the Red River of the North Basin in North Dakota, Minnesota, and South Dakota. During the entire data-development period, gaged streamflow data were available for only 4 of the 35 sites, incomplete data of various length were available for 10 sites, and no data were available for 21 sites. Drainage- area ratio and Maintenance of Variance Extension Type 1 methods were used to estimate the historic streamflow for months when no data were available. Unregulated streamflow for the 35 sites was estimated by eliminating the hydrologic effects of Orwell Reservoir, Lake Traverse, Mud Lake, Lake Ashtabula, and surface-water withdrawals. Modeled flows at the Red River of the North at Wahpeton by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers were used to eliminate the effects of Orwell Reservoir, Lake Traverse, and Mud Lake, and water-balance procedures were used to eliminate the effects of Lake Ashtabula.

Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota↗

USGS1999

Quantification of precipitation measurement discontinuity induced by wind shields on national gauges

Various combinations of wind shields and national precipitation gauges commonly used in countries of the northern hemisphere have been studied in this paper, using the combined intercomparison data collected at 14 sites during the World Meteorological Organization's (WMO) Solid Precipitation Measurement Intercomparison Project. The results show that wind shields improve gauge catch of precipitation, particularly for snow. Shielded gauges, on average, measure 20–70% more snow than unshielded gauges. Without a doubt, the use of wind shields on precipitation gauges has introduced a significant discontinuity into precipitation records, particularly in cold and windy regions. This discontinuity is not constant and it varies with wind speed, temperature, and precipitation type. Adjustment for this discontinuity is necessary to obtain homogenous precipitation data for climate change and hydrological studies. The relation of the relative catch ratio (RCR, ratio of measurements of shielded gauge to unshielded gauge) versus wind speed and temperature has been developed for Alter and Tretyakov wind shields. Strong linear relations between measurements of shielded gauge and unshielded gauge have also been found for different precipitation types. The linear relation does not fully take into account the varying effect of wind and temperature on gauge catch. Overadjustment by the linear relation may occur at those sites with lower wind speeds, and underadjustment may occur at those stations with higher wind speeds. The RCR technique is anticipated to be more applicable in a wide range of climate conditions. The RCR technique and the linear relation have been tested at selected WMO intercomparison stations, and reasonable agreement between the adjusted amounts and the shielded gauge measurements was obtained at most of the sites. Test application of the developed methodologies to a regional or national network is therefore recommended to further evaluate their applicability in different climate conditions. Significant increase of precipitation is expected due to the adjustment particularly in high latitudes and other cold regions. This will have a meaningful impact on climate variation and change analyses.

Water Resources Research↗

USGS1991

Documentation of a heat and water transfer model for seasonally frozen soils with application to a precipitation-runoff model

A model that simulates heat and water transfer in soils during freezing and thawing periods was developed and incorporated into the U.S. Geological Survey's Precipitation-Runoff Modeling System. The transfer of heat 1s based on an equation developed from Fourier's equation for heat flux. Field capacity and infiltration rate can vary throughout the freezing and thawing period, depending on soil conditions and rate and timing of snowmelt. The transfer of water within the soil profile is based on the concept of capillary forces. The model can be used to determine the effects of seasonally frozen soils on ground-water recharge and surface-water runoff. Data collected for two winters, 1985-86 and 1986-87, on three runoff plots were used to calibrate and verify the model. The winter of 1985-86 was colder than normal and snow cover was continuous throughout the winter. The winter of 1986-87 was wanner than normal and snow accumulated for only short periods of several days. Runoff, snowmelt, and frost depths were used as the criteria for determining the degree of agreement between simulated and measured data. The model was calibrated using the 1985-86 data for plot 2. The calibration simulation agreed closely with the measured data. The verification simulations for plots 1 and 3 using the 1985-86 data and for plots 1 and 2 using the 1986-87 data agreed closely with the measured data. The verification simulation for plot 3 using the 1986-87 data did not agree closely. The recalibratlon simulations for plots 1 and 3 using the 1985-86 data Indicated small improvement because the verification simulations for plots 1 and 3 already agreed closely with the measured data.

Open-File Report↗

USGS1990

Solid-precipitation (snowfall) measurement intercomparison, Bismarck, North Dakota

Difficulties involved in obtaining accurate measurements of solid precipitation (snowfall) have been recognized for many years. Many studies have been conducted to evaluate the accuracy and performance of precipitation gages. These studies show that the type of collection method used can significantly affect the quantity of precipitation measured. Although the types of collection methods evaluated differed for each study and the magnitude of measurement error differed for each study, all of the studies concluded that wind is the major cause of measurement error. Measurement error caused by wind is the result of turbulence and wind speed in the vicinity of the gage orifice (opening). As air rises to pass over the gage, precipitation particles that would have entered the gage orifice are deflected and carried farther downwind. Measurement errors increase as wind speed increases. Studies have shown that measurement errors as great as 80 percent can be attributed to wind. Wind speed and turbulence can be reduced by shielding the gage from the wind. Several types of windshields have been built to decrease wind-related errors. The World Meteorological Organization recognized the need for an international comparison of current methods used for measuring solid precipitation and proposed the Solid Precipitation Measurement Intercomparison. The objectives of the Intercomparison are to: Determine the wind-related errors in methods of solid-precipitation measurements; Derive standard methods for correcting solid-precipitation measurements; Introduce a reference method of solid-precipitation measurement for general use to calibrate any type of precipitation gage; and Establish a complete solid-precipitation data set

Open-File Report↗

USGS1989

Streamflow at selected gaging stations on the James River in North Dakota and South Dakota, 1953-82, with a section on climatology

Historic stream flow data were compiled and record extension techniques were used, when necessary, to develop a monthly stream flow record for 1953-82 at streamflow-gaging stations on the James River in North Dakota and South Dakota. The record extension techniques included both Maintenance of Variance Extension Type 1 and Ordinary Least Squares. In addition to the historic stream flow record, synthesized unregulated streamflow was computed for gaging stations on the James River for 1953-82 by eliminating the effects of Jamestown Reservoir, Pipestem Reservoir, Sand Lake National Wildlife Refuge, and the consumptive surface-water withdrawals. Maintenance of Variance Extension Type 1, Ordinary Least Squares regression, water-balance procedures, and drainage-area ratio methods were used to compute the unregulated streamflows. Mean annual historic stream flow of the James River at Jamestown is about 7,000 acre-feet less than the mean annual unregulated streamflow. Mean monthly unregulated streamflow is greater than mean monthly historic streamflow during March, April, and May; during all other months, unregulated stream flow is less than historic streamflow. The climate during 1953-82 was compared to the climate records, which range in length from 53 to 102 years, in the James River basin to determine if the climate during 1953-82 was similar to the climate that has occurred during the last 90 years. On the basis of the climate analysis, the data-development period (1953-82) does not represent an abnormally wet or dry period. Thus, the streamflow during the data-development period represents a range of streamflows that might be expected to occur during the last 90 years.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS1987

Meteorologic data for West Branch Antelope Creek stations and Canfield Lake station in west-central North Dakota, May 1982 through September 1986

Data collected at four meteorologic stations located in west-central North Dakota are presented. In the West Branch Antelope Creek area, meteorologic data were collected at one weather station and two supplemental precipitation stations. The data for West Branch Antelope Creek weather station include: Accumulated precipitation, air temperature, relative humidity, soil temperature, solar radiation, wind direction, and wind speed. In the Canfield Lake area, meteorologic data were collected at one weather station. The data for the Canfield Lake weather station include: Accumulated precipitation, air temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, wind direction, wind run, and wind speed.

Open-File Report↗

USGS1986

Flood analysis along the Little Missouri River within and adjacent to Theodore Roosevelt National Park, North Dakota

The Little Missouri River flows through Theodore Roosevelt National Park t which consists of three separate units: South Unit, Elkhorn Ranch Site, and North Unit. The park is located in the Little Missouri badlands. Discharges and water-surface elevations for 100- or 500-year floods or both were computed for selected reaches along the Little Missouri River and three of its tributaries (Knutson Creek, Paddock Creek, and Squaw Creek) within and adjacent to Theodore Roosevelt National Park. The 100- and 500-year flood discharges for the Little Missouri River were determined from streamflow records. The 100-year flood discharges for the three creeks were estimated using a multiple-regression equation based on drainage area and soil-infiltration index. Water-surface elevations were determined by the step-backwater method. The effects of ice jams on water-surface elevations were estimated from streamflow records.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS1985

Small-area snow surveys on the northern plains of North Dakota

Snow-cover data are needed for many facets of hydrology. The variation in snow cover over small areas is the focus of this study. The feasibility of using aerial surveys to obtain information on the snow water equivalent of the snow cover in order to minimize the necessity of labor intensive ground snow surveys was- evaluated. A low-flying aircraft was used to measure attenuations of natural terrestrial gamma radiation by snow cover. Aerial and ground snow surveys of eight 1-mile snow courses and one 4-mile snow course were used in the evaluation, with ground snow surveys used as the base to evaluate aerial data. Each of the 1-mile snow courses consisted of a single land use and all had the same terrain type (plane). The 4-mile snow course consists of a variety of land uses and the same terrain type (plane). Using the aerial snow-survey technique, the snow water equivalent of the 1-mile snow courses was. measured with three passes of the aircraft. Use of more than one pass did not improve the results. The mean absolute difference between the aerial- and ground-measured snow water equivalents for the 1-mile snow courses was 26 percent (0.77 inches). The aerial snow water equivalents determined for the 1-mile snow courses were used to estimate the variations in the snow water equivalents over the 4-mile snow course. The weighted mean absolute difference for the 4-mile snow course was 27 percent (0.8 inches). Variations in snow water equivalents could not be verified adequately by segmenting the aerial snow-survey data because of the uniformity found in the snow cover. On the 4-mile snow coirse, about two-thirds of the aerial snow-survey data agreed with the ground snow-survey data within the accuracy of the aerial technique ( + 0.5 inch of the mean snow water equivalent).

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS1983

Data from the surface-water hydrologic investigations of the Hay Creek Study Area, Montana, and the West Branch Antelope Creek Study Area, North Dakota, October 1976 through April 1982

Data are provided for the Hay Creek study area near Wibaux, Mont., and the West Branch Antelope Creek study area near Beulah, N. Dak. The report contains data on the following: Air temperature, relative humidity, wind direction, wind run, solar radiation, precipitation, soil temperature, snowpack temperature, snowpack density and water content, streamflow, water quality, soil moisture, land use, and basin characteristics. Detailed descriptions of the location of the data-collection sites, instrumentation, and methods used to collect data are included.

Montana, North Dakota↗

USGS1981

Progress report on the effects of surface mining on the surface-water hydrology of selected basins in the Fort Union coal region, North Dakota and Montana

The purpose of the investigation is to provide a means to assess the impacts on surface-water hydrology due to changes in land use resulting from surface mining of coal in the Fort Union Coal Region, North Dakota and Montana. The objectives of the study are to: (1) Determine premining hydrologic conditions in small representative drainage basins and provide historical data with which to compare the magnitude of changes resulting from mining, and (2) develop the capability of making reasonably accurate projections of hydrologic effects resulting from the various land-use changes caused by surface mining. Data collection has been underway since October 1976 for the West Branch Antelope Creek study area in western North Dakota and since March 1978 for the Hay Creek study area in eastern Montana. Data collected during the premining period are being analyzed using statistical methods for the evaluation of the premining conditions. A digitial model with the capability of making hydrologic projections is being developed. Most of the model components have been tested during 1979 and 1980. (USGS)

Open-File Report↗