Search USGS⌕ Search

Geology topics

D. Kirk Nordstrom

Publications and source records attributed to D. Kirk Nordstrom.

At least 109 records · Page 6Linked to original sources
USGS2000

Geochemical investigations by the U.S. Geological Survey on uranium mining, milling, and environmental restoration

Recent research by the U.S. Geological Survey has characterized contaminant sources and identified important geochemical processes that influence transport of radionuclides from uranium mining and milling wastes. 1) Selective extraction studies indicated that alkaline earth sulfates and hydrous ferric oxides are important hosts of 226 Ra in uranium mill tailings. The action of sulfate-reducing and ironreducing bacteria on these phases was shown to enhance release of radium, and this adverse result may temper decisions to dispose of uranium mill tailings in anaerobic environments. 2) Field studies have shown that although surface-applied sewage sludge/wood chip amendments aid in revegetating pyritic spoil, the nitrogen in sludge leachate can enhance pyrite oxidation, acidification of groundwater, and the consequent mobilization of metals and radionuclides. 3) In a U.S. Environmental Protection Agencyfunded study, three permeable reactive barriers consisting of phosphate-rich material, zero-valent iron, or amorphous ferric oxyhydroxide have been installed at an abandoned uranium upgrader facility near Fry Canyon, UT. Preliminary results indicate that each of the permeable reactive barriers is removing the majority of the uranium from the groundwater. 4) Studies on the geochemistry of rare earth elements as analogues for actinides such as uranium and thorium in acid mine drainage environments indicate high mobility under acid-weathering conditions but measurable attenuation associated with iron and aluminum colloid formation. Mass balances from field and laboratory studies are being used to quantify the amount of attenuation. 5) A field study in Colorado demonstrated the use of 234 U/ 238 U isotopic ratio measurements to evaluate contamination of shallow groundwater with uranium mill effluent.

Utah↗
USGS2000

Ecogeochemistry of the subsurface food web at pH 0–2.5 in Iron Mountain, California, U.S.A.

Pyrite oxidation in the underground mining environment of Iron Mountain, California, has created the most acidic pH values ever reported in aquatic systems. Sulfate values as high as 120 000 mg l −1 and iron as high as 27 600 mg l −1 have been measured in the mine water, which also carries abundant other dissolved metals including Al, Zn, Cu, Cd, Mn, Sb and Pb. Extreme acidity and high metal concentrations apparently do not preclude the presence of an underground acidophilic food web, which has developed with bacterial biomass at the base and heliozoans as top predators. Slimes, oil-like films, flexible and inflexible stalactites, sediments, water and precipitates were found to have distinctive communities. A variety of filamentous and non-filamentous bacteria grew in slimes in water having pH values <1.0. Fungal hyphae colonize stalactites dripping pH 1.0 water; they may help to form these drip structures. Motile hypotrichous ciliates and bdelloid rotifers are particularly abundant in slimes having a pH of 1.5. Holdfasts of the iron bacterium Leptothrix discophora attach to biofilms covering pools of standing water having a pH of 2.5 in the mine. The mine is not a closed environment – people, forced air flow and massive flushing during high intensity rainfall provide intermittent contact between the surface and underground habitats, so the mine ecosystem probably is not a restricted one.

California↗
USGS2000

Metal-sulfate salts from sulfide mineral oxidation

The observation of “efflorescences,” or the flowering of salts, associated with periods of dryness in soils, in closed-basin lakes, in rock outcrops, and in mines and mine wastes has been noted since early antiquity. The formation of metal-sulfate salts, in connection with the mining of metals, was a phenomenon well known to the early Greek and Roman civilizations. Alum, most commonly potash alum KAl(SO 4 ) 2 · 12H 2 O, which is from the Latin alumen , was extensively mined and used by goldsmiths, dyers, paper manufacturers, and physicians in ancient civilizations. It forms from the oxidation of pyrite in shales and slates and from oxidation of sulfurous gases in geothermal areas. The Greeks and the Romans described stalactites of atramentum (soluble metal-sulfate salts) that formed within mines and along rock faces (Agricola 1546, 1556). Furthermore, the toxic effects of these salts on animals were also noted. For example, in De Natura Fossilium , Agricola (1546) stated “….I mention the congealed acid juice which usually produces cadmia . It is white, hard, and so acrid that it can eat away walls, grills and even destroy all living matter.” Cadmia is thought to be derived from the oxidation of zinc, cobalt, and arsenic sulfides, such as cobaltite. He goes on to say that “Pyrite, unless it contains sulphates, is either a golden or silver color, rarely any other, while cadmia is black, yellow brown, or gray. The former will cure gatherings while the latter is a deadly poison and will destroy any living substance. It is used to kill grasshoppers, mice and flies.” These descriptions suggest the presence of arsenic compounds. The range of colors from white to black commonly is caused by different amounts of admixed pyrite with sulfate minerals. From the days of the Greek philosopher Theophrastus ( ca 325 BCE) and the Greek physician Dioscorides (first century CE), the efflorescent salts atramentum sutorium virida or melanterite (also called melanteria ) and atramentum sutorium caeruleum or chalcanthite were well known to form from the corrosion of pyrite and chalcopyrite by moisture (Agricola 1546, footnotes on p. 47–51). By the time of Pliny the Second (Caius Plinius Secundus, 23–79 CE), the names “green vitriol” for melanterite and “blue vitriol” for chalcanthite were in common use and continued to be used from the Middle Ages to the 20th century.

Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry↗
USGS2000

An overview of arsenic mass-poisoning in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India

The largest mass poisoning in the world, perhaps in history, is happening in West Bengal, India, and Bangladesh. Many thousands of people suffer from arsenic skin disorders and are dying from cancer. About 19 million are estimated to be at risk. The discovery of the arsenic poisoning from tubewell drinking water was made in 1983, but it took about 10 years to be formally recognized as a large-scale problem. The source of the arsenic is natural and three hypotheses have been proposed for its mobilization: oxidation of arsenian pyrite, reductive iron dissolution with release of adsorbed arsenic, and competitive adsorption from phosphate. The processes causing arsenic mobilization in the Bengal Delta are still poorly understood and further research is needed to design long-term remediation strategies.

Book chapter↗
USGS1999

Negative pH and extremely acidic mine waters from Iron Mountain, California

Extremely acidic mine waters with pH values as low as -3.6, total dissolved metal concentrations as high as 200 g/L, and sulfate concentrations as high as 760 g/L, have been encountered underground in the Richmond Mine at Iron Mountain, CA. These are the most acidic waters known. The pH measurements were obtained by using the Pitzer method to define pH for calibration of glass membrane electrodes. The calibration of pH below 0.5 with glass membrane electrodes becomes strongly nonlinear but is reproducible to a pH as low as -4. Numerous efflorescent minerals were found forming from these acid waters. These extreme acid waters were formed primarily by pyrite oxidation and concentration by evaporation with minor effects from aqueous ferrous iron oxidation and efflorescent mineral formation.

Environmental Science & Technology↗
USGS1999

Negative pH, efflorescent mineralogy, and consequences for environmental restoration at the iron mountain superfund site, California

The Richmond Mine of the Iron Mountain copper deposit contains some of the most acid mine waters ever reported. Values of pH have been measured as low as -3.6, combined metal concentrations as high as 200 g/liter, and sulfate concentrations as high as 760 g/liter. Copious quantities of soluble metal sulfate salts such as melanterite, chalcanthite, coquimbite, rhomboclase, voltaite, copiapite, and halotrichite have been identified, and some of these are forming from negative-pH mine waters. Geochemical calculations show that, under a mine-plugging remediation scenario, these salts would dissolve and the resultant 600,000-m3 mine pool would have a pH of 1 or less and contain several grams of dissolved metals per liter, much like the current portal effluent water. In the absence of plugging or other at-source control, current weathering rates indicate that the portal effluent will continue for approximately 3,000 years. Other remedial actions have greatly reduced metal loads into downstream drainages and the Sacramento River, primarily by capturing the major acidic discharges and routing them to a lime neutralization plant. Incorporation of geochemical modeling and mineralogical expertise into the decision-making process for remediation can save time, save money, and reduce the likelihood of deleterious consequences.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of↗
USGS1999

New method for the direct determination of dissolved Fe(III) concentration in acid mine waters

A new method for direct determination of dissolved Fe(III) in acid mine water has been developed. In most present methods, Fe(III) is determined by computing the difference between total dissolved Fe and dissolved Fe(II). For acid mine waters, frequently Fe(II) ≫ Fe(III); thus, accuracy and precision are considerably improved by determining Fe(III) concentration directly. The new method utilizes two selective ligands to stabilize Fe(III) and Fe(II), thereby preventing changes in Fe reduction−oxidation distribution. Complexed Fe(II) is cleanly removed using a silica-based, reversed-phase adsorbent, yielding excellent isolation of the Fe(III) complex. Iron(III) concentration is measured colorimetrically or by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS). The method requires inexpensive commercial reagents and simple procedures that can be used in the field. Calcium(II), Ni(II), Pb(II), Al(III), Zn(II), and Cd(II) cause insignificant colorimetric interferences for most acid mine waters. Waters containing >20 mg of Cu/L could cause a colorimetric interference and should be measured by GFAAS. Cobalt(II) and Cr(III) interfere if their molar ratios to Fe(III) exceed 24 and 5, respectively. Iron(II) interferes when its concentration exceeds the capacity of the complexing ligand (14 mg/L). Because of the GFAAS elemental specificity, only Fe(II) is a potential interferent in the GFAAS technique. The method detection limit is 2 μg/L (40 nM) using GFAAS and 20 μg/L (0.4 μM) by colorimetry.

Environmental Science & Technology↗
USGS1999

Oxygen isotopes of dissolved sulfate as a tool to distinguish natural and mining-related dissolved constituents

Natural and mining-related dissolved-constituent concentrations need to be distinguished in a watershed affected by abandoned mines to prioritize subbasins for remediation and to assist with the establishment of water-quality standards. The oxygen isotopes of dissolved sulfate can be used to distinguish between natural and mining-related sources of dissolved constituents. Several methods employing the oxygen isotopes of dissolved sulfate can be used to determine the relative amounts of natural and mining related dissolved constituents in water: (1) the isotope-dilution equation for simple mixing zones (two sources and one receiving stream); (2) the isotope mass-balance equation for streams receiving dissolved sulfate from multiple geologic sources; and (3) graphical relations and the mathematical solution of simultaneous equations in a watershed approach. Using the different methods for data collected during low flow, about 71 to 75 percent of the dissolved-constituent concentrations are from natural sources in selected subbasins of the upper Animas watershed.

Open File Report↗
USGS1998

Critical evaluation and selection of standard state thermodynamic properties for chromium metal and its aqueous ions, hydrolysis species, oxides, and hydroxides

This review critically evaluates the reported thermodynamic data on chromium metal, oxides, hydroxides, free aqueous ions, and hydrolysis species. Several discrepancies and inconsistencies have been uncovered and resolved to improve equilibrium calculations for chemical modeling and related engineering purposes. A revised set of data is derived from evaluation of electrochemical measurements, silver chromate solubility measurements, and auxiliary post-1980 data, reevaluation of earlier data, and reconsideration of the path for the thermodynamic network. The recommended thermodynamic values for Cr (cr) , C , C , Cr , Cr 2 , Cr 2 O 3(cr) , CrO 3(cr) , FeCr 2 O 4(cr) , CrCl 2(cr) , CrCl 3(cr) , and KFe 3 (CrO 4 ) 2 (OH) 6(cr) at 25 °C, 1 bar, and infinite dilution are given.

Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data↗
USGS1998

Chemical analyses of hot springs, pools, geysers, and surface waters from Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, and vicinity, 1974-1975

This report presents all analytical determinations for samples collected from Yellowstone National Park and vicinity during 1974 and 1975. Water temperature, pH, Eh, and dissolved O2 were determined on-site. Total alkalinity and F were determined on the day of sample collection. Flame atomic-absorption spectrometry was used to determine concentrations of Li, Na, K, Ca, and Mg. Ultraviolet/visible spectrophotometry was used to determine concentrations of Fe(II), Fe(III), As(III), and As(V). Direct-current plasma-optical-emission spectrometry was used to determine the concentrations of B, Ba, Cd, Cs, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sr, and Zn. Two samples collected from Yellowstone Park in June 1974 were used as reference samples for testing the plasma analytical method. Results of these tests demonstrate acceptable precision for all detectable elements. Charge imbalance calculations revealed a small number of samples that may have been subject to measurement errors in pH or alkalinity. These data represent some of the most complete analyses of Yellowstone waters available.

Wyoming↗
USGS1998

Water-chemistry and on-site sulfur-speciation data for selected springs in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, 1994-1995

Forty-two water analyses are reported for samples collected at 8 hot springs and their overflow drainages, two geysers, and two ambient-temperature acid streams in Yellowstone National Park during 1994-95. These water samples were collected and analyzed as part of the initial research investigations on sulfur redox speciation in the hot springs of Yellowstone and to document chemical changes in overflows that affect major ions, redox species, and trace elements. The sulfur redox speciation research is a collaboration between the State University of New York (SUNY) at Stony Brook and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Four hot springs, Ojo Caliente, Azure, Frying Pan, and Angel Terrace, were studied in detail. Analyses were performed adjacent to the sampling site or in an on-site mobile lab truck constructed by the USGS, or later in a USGS laboratory. Water temperature, specific conductance, pH, Eh, D.O., and dissolved H2S were determined adjacent to the sample source at the time of sampling. Alkalinity and F- were determined on-site on the day of sample collection. Thiosulfate and polythionates were determined as soon as possible (minutes to hours later) by ion chromatography (IC). Other major anions (Cl-, SO4 2-, Br-) also were determined on-site by IC within two days of sample collection. Ammonium, Fe(II), and Fe(total) were determined on-site by ultraviolet/visible spectrophotometry within two days of sample collection. Later in the USGS laboratory, densities were determined. Concentrations of Ca, Mg, Li, Na, and K were determined by flame atomic absorption and emission (Na, K) spectrometry. Concentrations of Al, As, B, Ba, Be, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe(total), K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Si, Sr, V, and Zn were determined by inductively-coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. Trace concentrations of Al and Mg were determined by Zeeman-corrected graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. Three important conclusions from the sampling and analyses are: (1) variability in H2S concentrations can be caused as much by sampling and preservation artifacts as by actual variations in water composition over time, (2) historical determinations of S2O3 2- were subject to overestimation, most likely because of inadequate preservation leading to H2S oxidation, and (3) S2O3 2- is a common constituent of hot spring waters.

Wyoming↗
USGS1997

Geochemical modeling of water-rock interactions in mining environments

Geochemical modeling is a powerful tool for evaluating geochemical processes in mining environments. Properly constrained and judiciously applied, modeling can provide valuable insights into processes controlling the release, transport, and fate of contaminants in mine drainage. This chapter contains 1) an overview of geochemical modeling, 2) discussion of the types of models and computer programs used, 3) description of a procedure for screening water analyses for modeling input, and 4) examples of the application of modeling for interpreting geochemical processes in mining environments. Three general strategies in current use to interpret water-rock interactions are statistical analysis, “inverse” modeling, and “forward” modeling. Multivariate correlation analysis, factor analysis, cluster analysis, and other statistical techniques can group water-chemistry data into sets that may relate to hydrogeochemical processes (Drever, 1988; Puckett and Bricker, 1992). In the field of geochemical exploration, statistical analysis is used widely to treat large data sets of rock and sediment chemistry (e.g., Garrett, 1989). No physical or chemical principles are involved directly in these statistical treatments, hence they are not considered further in this chapter. Nevertheless, statistical analysis can be a useful tool in organizing complex geochemical data for interpretation.

Book chapter↗