Geochemical constraints on groundwaters dominated by silicate hydrolysis: An interactive spreadsheet, mass balance approach
[No abstract available]
Chemical Geology↗
Geology topics
B.F. Jones
Publications and source records attributed to B.F. Jones.
Normative analysis of saline waters from the central Murray Basin, Australia
[No abstract available]
Chemical Geology↗
Origin of solutes in saline lakes and springs on the Southern High Plains of Texas and New Mexico
Analysis of hydraulic heads, calculation of pore volume flushing, and analysis of solute and isotopic chemistry strongly suggest that the solutes originate from the concentration by evaporation of runoff and potable shallow ground water that discharges from the High Plains aquifer. Chloride/bromide solute ratios, which are thought to be unaffected by mineral precipitation or sorption, average 160 in saline lakes and springs, close to an average for the High Plains aquifer (140), and are significantly different from the average deep-basin brines (680). Solute ratios of sodium/potassium, chloride/sulfate, and sulfur isotopes, although not conservative, also strongly support the hypothesis that solutes in the lakes were derived from shallow ground water from the High Plains aquifer and from overland runoff rather than from deep-basin brines.
Book chapter↗
Geochemistry of Great Salt Lake, Utah I: Hydrochemistry since 1850
The hydrochemistry of Great Salt Lake, Utah, has been defined for the historic period, 1850 through 1982, from published data combined with new observations. The water balance depends largely on river inflow, atmospheric precipitation onto the lake surface and evaporation. Input of the major solutes can best be accounted for by mixing dilute calcium-bicarbonate type river waters with NaCl-dominated hydrothermal springs. Prior to 1930, lake concentrations fluctuated inversely with lake volume in response to small climatic variations. Since then, salt precipitation and dissolution have significantly modified lake brine compositions and have led to density stratification and the formation of brine pockets of differing composition. Brine mixing has become an important component of brine evolution. We have used calculated evaporation curves with mineral precipitation and dissolution to clarify these processes. Pore fluids represent important storage for solutes. Solute profiles can be modeled by simple one-dimensional diffusion calculations. Short-term historic variations in lake composition affect shallow pore fluids in the upper 2 metres of sediment. ?? 1985.
Utah↗
Geochemistry of great Salt Lake, Utah II: Pleistocene-Holocene evolution
Sedimentologic and biostratigraphic evidence is used to develop a geochemical model for Great Salt Lake, Utah, extending back some 30,000 yrs. B.P. Hydrologie conditions as defined by the water budget equation are characterized by a lake initially at a low, saline stage, rising by about 17,000 yrs. B.P. to fresh water basin-full conditions (Bonneville level) and then, after about 15,000 yrs. B.P., dropping rapidly to a saline stage again, as exemplified by the present situation. Inflow composition has changed through time in response to the hydrologie history. During fresh-water periods high discharge inflow is dominated by calcium bicarbonate-type river waters; during saline stages, low discharge, NaCl-rich hydrothermal springs are significant solute sources. This evolution in lake composition to NaCl domination is illustrated by the massive mirabilite deposition, free of halite, following the rapid drawdown until about 8,000 years ago, while historic droughts have yielded principally halite. Hydrologic history can be combined with inferred inflow composition to derive concentration curves with time for each major solute in the lake. Calcium concentrations before the drawdown were controlled by calcite solubility, and afterwards by aragonite. Significant amounts of solutes are removed from the lake by diffusion into the sediments. Na+, Cl- and SO42- are also involved in salt precipitation. By including pore fluid data, a surprisingly good fit has been obtained between solute input over the time period considered and the amounts actually found in lake brines, pore fluids, salt beds and sediments. Excess amounts are present for calcium, carbonate and silica, indicating detrital input.
Utah↗
Great Salt Lake, and precursors, Utah: The last 30,000 years
Sediment cores up to 6.5 m in length from the South Arm of Great Salt Lake, Utah, have been correlated. Radiocarbon ages and volcanic tephra layers indicate a record of greater than 30,000 years. A variety of approaches have been employed to collect data used in stratigraphic correlation and lake elevation interpretation; these include acoustic stratigraphy, sedimentologic analyses, mineralogy, geochemistry (major element, C, O and S isotopes, and organics), paleontology and pollen. The results indicate that prior to 32,000 year B.P. an ephemeral saline lake-playa system was present in the basin. The perennial lake, which has occupied the basin since this time, rose in a series of three major steps; the freshest water conditions and presumably highest altitude was reached at about 17,000 year B.P. The lake remained fresh for a brief period, followed by a rapid increase in salinity and sharp lowering in elevation to levels below that of the present Great Salt Lake. The lake remained at low elevations, and divided at times into a north and south Basin, until about 8,000 year B.P. Since that time, with the exception of two short rises to about 1290 m, the lake level has remained near the present elevation of 1280 m. ?? 1984 Springer-Verlag.
Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology↗
Partial compilation and revision of basic data in the WATEQ programs
Several portions of the basic data in the WATEQ series of computer programs (WATEQ, WATEQF, WATEQ2, WATEQ3, and PHREEQE) are compiled. The density and dielectric constant of water and their temperature dependence are evaluated for the purpose of updating the Debye-Huckel solvent parameters in the activity coefficient equations. The standard state thermodynamic properties of the Fe2+ and Fe3+ aqueous ions are refined. The main portion of this report is a comprehensive listing of aluminum hydrolysis constants, aluminum fluoride, aluminum sulfate, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, potassium sulfate and sodium sulfate stability constants, solubility product constants for gibbsite and amorphous aluminum hydroxide, and the standard electrode potentials for Fe (s)/Fe2+(aq) and Fe2 +(aq)/Fe3+(aq). (USGS)
Water-Resources Investigations Report↗
Mineralogy of fine-grained alluvium from borehole U11g, expl. 1, northern Frenchman Flat area, Nevada Test Site
The mineralogy of matrix fines in alluvium from borehole Ullg, expl. 1, north of Frenchman Flat, Nevada Test Site, has been examined for evidence of past variations in water table elevation. Although greater abundance of zeolite and slightly more expanded basal spacings in smectite clays suggest effects of increased hydration of material up to 50 m above the present water table, these differences might also be related to provenance of environment of deposition. The relative uniformity of clay hydration properties in the 50 meters above the current water table suggest long-term stability near the present level. (USGS)
Open-File Report↗
Geochemical evolution of brines in the Salar of Uyuni, Bolivia.
Recent analyses of brines from the Salars of Uyuni and Coipasa have been compared with published data for Lakes Titicaca and Poopo to evaluate solute compositional trends in these remnants of two large Pleistocene lakes once connected by overflow from the N to the S of the Bolivian Altiplano. From Titicaca to Poopo the water shows an increase in Cl and N somewhat greater than the total solutes. Ca and SO4 increase to a lesser extent than total dissolved solids, and carbonate species are relatively constant. Between Poopo and Coipasa proportions of Ca, SO4 and CO3 continue to decrease. At Coipasa and Uyuni, the great salars frequently evaporate to halite saturation. Halite crystallization is accompanied by an increased K, Mg and SO4 in residual brines. - from Authors
Chemical Geology↗
Hydrochemistry of the Lake Magadi basin, Kenya
New and more complete compositional data are presented for a large number of water samples from the Lake Magadi area, Kenya. These water samples range from dilute inflow (<0.1 g/kg dissolved solids) to very concentrated brines (>300 g/kg dissolved solids). Five distinct hydrologic stages can be recognized in the evolution of the water compositions: dilute streamflow, dilute ground water, saline ground water (or hot spring reservoir), saturated brines, and residual brines. Based on the assumption that chloride is conserved in the waters during evaporative concentration, these stages are related to each other by the concentration factors of about 1:28:870:7600:16,800. Dilute streamflow is represented by perennial streams entering the Rift Valley from the west. All but one (Ewaso Ngiro) of these streams disappear in the alluvium and do not reach the valley floor. Dilute ground water was collected from shallow pits and wells dug into lake sediments and alluvial channels. Saline ground water is roughly equivalent to the hot springs reservoir postulated by Eugster (1970) and is represented by the hottest of the major springs. Saturated brines represent surficial lake brines just at the point of saturation with respect to trona (Na 2 CO 3 .NaHCO 3 .2H 2 O), while residual brines are essentially interstitial to the evaporite deposit and have been subjected to a complex history of precipitation and re-solution. The new data confirm the basic hydrologic model presented by Eugster (1970) which has now been refined, particularly with respect to the early stages of evaporative concentration. Budget calculations show that only bromide is conserved as completely as chloride. Sodium follows chloride closely until trona precipitation, whereas silica and sulfate are largely lost during the very first concentration' step (dilute streamflow-dilute ground water). A large fraction of potassium and all calcium plus magnesium are removed during the first two concentration steps (dilute streamflow-dilute ground water-saline ground water). Carbonate and bicarbonate are the dominant anions, and mechanisms by which they are extracted from the solution include precipitation of alkali and alkaline-earth carbonates, and degassing, as well as precipitation and re-solution of efflorescent crusts. Much sulfate is apparently lost from solution by sorption as well as subsurface reduction. Seasonal runoff, principally from the valley floor north of Lake Magadi, is considered to be the principal recharge to the Magadi ground water system. Evaporative concentration is the overall process responsible for the chemical evolution of the brines. This includes not only simple evaporation, but also mineral precipitation as films and cements in the unsaturated zone, re-solution, and reprecipitation of efflorescent crusts, with consequent recycling of salts. In fact, a large fraction of the solutes are acquired through dissolution of efflorescent crusts. Data were obtained for borehole brines from as deep as 297 m. They show the existence of two distinct brine bodies below the present lake, one shallow, coexistent with bedded salts, and highly concentrated (260 g/kg average dissolved solids), and the other deeper in lacustrine sediments or fractured lavas, and only half as concentrated.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta↗
Ion association in natural brines
Natural brines, both surface and subsurface, are highly associated aqueous solutions. Ion complexes in brines may be ion pairs in which the cation remains fully hydrated and the bond between the ions is essentially electrostatic, or coordination complexes in which one or more of the hydration water molecules are replaced by covalent bonds to the anion. Except for Cl − , the major simple ions in natural brines form ion pairs; trace and minor metals in brines form mainly coordination complexes. Limitations of the Debye-Hückel relations for activity coefficients and lack of data on definition and stability of all associated species in concentrated solutions tend to produce underestimates of the degree of ion association, except where the brines contain a very high proportion of Cl − . Data and calculations on closed basin brines of highly varied composition have been coupled with electrode measurements of single-ion activities in an attempt to quantify the degree of ion association. Such data emphasize the role of magnesium complexes. Trace metal contents of closed basin brines are related to complexes formed with major anions. Alkaline sulfo- or chlorocarbonate brines (western Great Basin) carry significant trace metal contents apparently as hydroxides or hydroxy polyions. Neutral high chloride brines (Bonneville Basin) are generally deficient in trace metals. With a knowledge of the thermodynamic properties of a natural water, many possible reactions with other phases (solids, gases, other liquids) may be predicted. A knowledge of these reactions is particularly important in the study of natural brines which may be saturated with many solid phases (silicates, carbonates, sulfates, etc.), which may have a high pH and bring about dissolution of other phases (silica, amphoteric hydroxides, CO 2 , etc.), and which because of their high density may form relatively stable interfaces with dilute waters.
Chemical Geology↗
Interstitial brines in playa sediments
Study of several closed drainages in the Great Basin has shown that the interstitial solutions of shallow, fine-grained playa deposits store a large quantity of dissolved solids and are often more concentrated than associated lakes and ponds, except in peripheral zones of stream or ground-water inflow. These interstitial fluids, when compared with local runoff, impoundments, or spring waters, commonly have a distinctive ionic composition which sometimes cannot be explained by either simple mixing of surface and subsurface inflow or by evaporative concentration. At Abert Lake, Oregon, the interstitial solute concentrations increased with depth to values as much as five times greater than the lake, except where springs indicate significant ground-water input. Where Na + , Cl, and CO 2 species constitute more than 90% of the solutes, Na + Cl − "> Na+Cl− ratios in the lake water are lower than in interstitial solutions of bottom cores and higher than in playa fluids. At the same time, Na + K + "> Na+K+ ratios are highest in the fluids of lake bottom muds and lowest in playa interstitials. In deeper playa profiles, interstitial Na + Cl − "> Na+Cl− tended to decrease with depth (5 ft. maximum). In the Abert Lake area, as in other parts of the western Great Basin, Na + Cl − "> Na+Cl− ratios are indicative of total CO 2 in solution and the effects of organic decay in surficial sediments. These ratios, coupled with data on silica and bulk density, show that higher P CO2 accompanying decay promotes silicate dissolution and hydrogen ion exchange, stripping alkalis from sediment which had preferentially adsorbed K + when entering the lake. On subsequent loss of pore fluid in the playa regime, silica initially released to solution in the lake environment is readsorbed on dissolution products.
Oregon↗
Isotope studies of dolomite formation under sedimentary conditions
Measurements of stable isotope abundances of the carbonate portion of the sediment in Deep Springs Lake, California, indicate the presence of at least three phases: a magnesian calcite, a primary sedimentary dolomite, and a detrital dolomite. The former two have isotopic compositions consistent with precipitation at isotopic equilibrium from waters of the lake area. The measured isotopic fractionation factor between sedimentary dolomite and its interstitial water is 1.0351, which is outside the range possible for calcite-water. This indicates that the dolomite has formed by direct crystallization from solution and not from a caloite precursor without further isotope exchange. Isotopic and X-ray evidence does not support the contention of Peterson et al . (1966) that Deep Springs Lake dolomite crystals grow by means of a calcite-like surface layer.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta↗
Gels composed of sodium-aluminum silicate, Lake Magadi, Kenya
Sodium-aluminum silicate gels are found in surficial deposits as thick as 5 centimeters in the Magadi area of Kenya. Chemical data indicate they are formed by the interaction of hot alkaline springwaters (67° to 82°C; p H, about 9) with alkali trachyte flows and their detritus, rather than by direct precipitation. In the process, Na 2 O is added from and silica is released to the saline waters of the springs. Algal mats protect the gels from erosion and act as thermal insulators. The gels are probably yearly accumulates that are washed into the lakes during floods. Crystallization of these gels in the laboratory yields analcite; this fact suggests that some analcite beds in lacustrine deposits may have formed from gels. Textural evidence indicates that cherts of rocks of the Pleistocene chert series in the Magadi area may have formed from soft sodium silicate gels. Similar gels may have acted as substrates for the accumulation and preservation of prebiological organic matter during the Precambrian.
Lake Magadi↗
Silica in alkaline brines
Analysis of sodium carbonate-bicarbonate brines from closed basins in volcanic terranes of Oregon and Kenya reveals silica contents of up to 2700 parts per million at p H's higher than 10. These high concentrations of SiO 2 can be attributed to reaction of waters with silicates, and subsequent evaporative concentration accompanied by a rise in p H. Supersaturation with respect to amorphous silica may occur and persist for brines that are out of contact with silicate muds and undersaturated with respect to trona; correlation of SiO 2 with concentration of Na and total CO 2 support this interpretation. Addition of more-dilute waters to alkaline brines may lower the p H and cause inorganic precipitation of substantial amounts of silica.
Science↗
Calcium and bromide contents of natural waters
The linear relation observed in a log Ca ++ versus log Br - plot for subsurface Cl - waters is attributed to ultrafiltration by shale of sea water and fresh water that have passed through sedimentary rocks since their formation. Reactions between these solutions and sedimentary minerals, particularly dolomitization, must have contributed additional Ca ++ to solution.
Science↗
Glass electrode determination of sodium in closed basin waters
Because of its direct relation to total dissolved solids content, sodium concentration is the most useful single hydrochemical parameter of closed basin waters in the western United States. Therefore, it is advantageous to have a rapid method for sodium determination which could be readily adapted to field use. Accordingly, thirty waters of highly variable concentration and anionic composition from the western Great Basin have been analyzed with a sodium-sensitive glass electrode. Na + values ranged from 10 to 130,000 ppm in waters containing from 102 to 401,000 ppm total dissolved solids. The electrode values were compared with conventional sodium determinations; results differed by as much as 11 per cent, although over two-thirds were within 5 per cent. No significant relation was found between the glass electrode and conventional method differences and the total dissolved solids or sodium concentration. The comparative accuracy of electrode and conventional procedures was checked, employing solutions of known sodium concentration. It was concluded that for the analysis of sodium in natural waters the glass electrode method offers results comparable in accuracy to those obtained by conventional methods, but with increased simplicity, and therefore the possibility of rapid, accurate field measurements.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta↗
Chemical quality of surface waters and sedimentation in the Saline River basin, Kansas
This report gives the results of an investigation of the sediment and dissolved minerals that are transported by the Saline River and its tributaries. The Saline River basin is in western and central Kansas; it is long and narrow and covers 3,420 square miles of rolling plains, which is broken in some places by escarpments and small areas of badlands. In the western part the uppermost bedrock consists predominantly of calcareous elastic sedimentary rocks of continental origin of Pliocene age and in most places is covered by eolian deposits of Pleistocene and Recent age. In the central part the ex posed bedrock consists predominantly of calcareous marine sedimentary rocks of Late Cretaceous age. In the eastern part the exposed bedrock consists mainly of noncalcareous continental and littoral elastic sedimentary rocks of Early Cretaceous and Permian age. Fluvial deposits are in the valleys, and eolian materials are present over much of the uplands. Average precipitation increases rather uniformly from about 18 inches per year in the west to almost 28 inches per year in the east. Runoff is not affected by irrigation nor regulated by large structures, but it is closely related to precipitation. Average runoff increases from less than 0.2 inch per year in the west to more than 1.5 inches per year in the east. Aquifers of the flood-plain and terrace deposits and of the Cretaceous Dakota Sandstone are the major sources of ground-water accretion to the streams. In the upper reaches of the Saline River, the water is only slightly mineralized; during the period of record the specific conductance near Wakeeney never exceeded 750 micromhos per centimeter. In the lower reaches, however, the water is slightly mineralized during periods of high flow and is highly mineralized during periods of low flow; the specific conductance near Russell exceeded 1,500 micromhos per centimeter more than 80 percent of the time. Near Russell, near Wilson, and at Tescott the water is of the calcium bicarbonate type when the specific conductance is less than about 1,000 micromhos per centimeter, but it is of the sodium chloride type when the specific conductance is more than about 1,500 micromhos per centimeter. The water is off the calcium bicarbonate, sodium bicarbonate, or sodium chloride type when the conductance is between 1,000 and 1,500 micromhos per centimeter. Most of the increase in mineralization of the water is caused by inflow of highly mineralized ground water. The ground-water inflow was estimated to be 22 percent of the total streamflow at Tescott in 1948 and 60 percent in 1952. Mineralization increases and water quality deteriorates progressively downstream along nearly the entire Saline River, especially in the part of the area directly underlain by the Dakota Sandstone between the vicinities of Fairport and Wilson: sodium and chloride are the principal constituents of water contributed by the Dakota. The total percentage of the salt in the Saline River that comes from oil-field brines is considered to be small. The water in the upper Saline River is of good quality for domestic use except that it is hard; the water in the lower Saline River is of poor quality for domestic use because most of the time it is highly mineralized, is hard, and contains high concentrations of chloride and sulfate. In the upper reaches of the river, the water is of good quality for irrigation. In the lower reaches, if the water were impounded in a reservoir, it would be of good quality for irrigation during years of high flow and of very poor quality during years of low flow. The water in the lower reaches is of poor quality for industrial use because it is highly mineralized most of the tinge. Relations of suspended-sediment discharge to water discharge were used with the long-term streamflow duration curves to compute the long-term aver age suspended-sediment discharges and concentrations at five indications. Sediment discharge is closely related to runoff. S
Water Supply Paper↗